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M. Richardson states that, after a careful comparison of cause. The pope gave sentence in their favour but still .ne specimens of Mr. Douglas's Tetrao Sabim, deposited the Parisian university refused to grant the laurer to Bonain the Edinburgh Museum, they appeared to differ in no ventura and Thomas Aquinas, and Gerard of Abbeville respect from the young of Tetrao Umbellus (Bonasia), and wrote in an abusive strain against the mendicant orders. that the characters by which Mr. Douglas distinguishes his Bonaventura replied to him powerfully, though temperately, bird * are equally applicable to the latter. in his · Apologia Pauperum. At last, in 1257, a sort of Douglas, whose premature and violent death we have to compromise took place, and Bonaventura received his docdeplore in common with all who are interested in the pro- tor's degree. He had already been elected general of his gress of natural history, found in the valleys of the Rocky order, in which capacity he enforced a strict discipline, Mountains, 54° N. lat, and a few miles northward, near giving himself the first example of implicit adherence to the sources of Peace River, a supposed variety of Bonasia the monastic rules and regulations. He wrote upon this Umbellus. On comparing his specimens from that country subject Epistola encyclica ad Ministros Provinciales et with some which he prepared in the States of New York Custodes,' and . Determinationes Quæstionum circa Regulam and Pennsylvania, and on the shores on the chain of lakes Sancti Francisci. He then retired to the convent on Mount in Upper Canada, he found tne following differences :- Alvernia in Tuscany, where he wrote .Vita Sancti FranFirst, the northern bird was constantly one-third smaller, cisci,' and also an ascetic work, · Itinerarium Mentis in of a very light speckled mixed grey, having little of that Deum, for which last he received the appellation of the rusty colour so conspicuous in the southern bird :-secondly, Seraphic Doctor. On the death of Pope Clement IV. in the ruffle consists invariably of only twenty feathers, short, 1268, the cardinals could not agree for a long time in the black, and with but litile azure glossiness ; the crest fea- choice of his successor, and the see of Rome had remained thers were few and short. •Should these characters,' aclus vacant for nearly three years, when Bonaventura succeeded the author, 'hereafter be considered of sufficient importance by his eloquent exhortations in reconciling their differences for constituting a distinct species, it might perhaps be well and producing unanimity of votes in favour of Tedaldus to call it Tetrao umbelloïdes.' Visconti, afterwards Gregory X. The new pope appointea Whether the bird above described be variety or species, Bonaventura Bishop of Albano, and took him with him to it would certainly belong to Bonaparte's subgenus Bonasia. the council of Lyons. Bonaventura was actively engaged We cannot conclude "his article without earnestly press in the labours of the council when he was stopped by death ing upon the consideration of those who are interested in in 1274. His funeral was attended by the pope, the cardisuch subjects, the ease with which the ruffed grouse might nals, the patriarchs of Constantinople and of Antioch, and be added to the Fauna of Europe ; and we entirely agree by more than 500 bishops. His character for sanctity was with Audubon, that in England and Scotland there are already established in the popular opinion, and Dante, who thousands of situations perfectly suited to the habits of this wrote not many years after his death, places him among noble species of game. `Audubon even goes so far as to the saints in canto 12 of the · Paradiso." Bonaventura was say that he has not a doubt that a few years of attention afterwards regularly canonized by the church. His works would be sufficient to render them quite as common as the have been collected in 9 vols. folio, Rome, 1588, and 13 grey partridge; and we hope that this hint will not be lost vols. 4to. Venice, 1751, to which last edition a well-written on the sportsmen of Great Britain. life of Bonaventura is prefixed. He has been praised for BONASO'NI, GIULIO, a native of Bologna. The pre- having avoided scholastic cavils and ambiguities in his cise date of his birth is unknown, but it was probably about style, and for having spoken the language of earnest faith 1498; the date of his death is equally uncertain; we only and sincere piety: such is the opinion of Brucker and of know that he was alive in 1572. It is conjectured, but Condillac. Luther placed Bonaventura above all scholastic without sufficient authority, that he studied painting under theologians. Several works have been attributed to BonaLorenzo Sabbatini. The few of his productions that re- ventura which do not belong to him, but which have furmain do not exhibit any extraordinary power. As an en- nished an opportunity to Voltaire and other critics for throwgraver he is excelled by few, for though we should now ing ridicule upon the supposed author. (Dissertatio De consider him very defective in the mechanical treatment of Suppositiis and Life of Bonaventura, prefixed to the Vethe plate, he worked• with the gusto of a genuine artist. nice edition of his works.) He wrought almost entirely with the burin ; and if he fails BONAVISTA, or BOAVISTA, the most easterly and occasionally in the outline, he always catches the spirit of one of the largest of the Cape Verde Islands, lies 21 miles S. his original. His copies are so free, and yet so delicate and of Sal, and 300 miles W. by N. of Cape Verde, the nearest expressive, that they might be taken for original designs. point of the African coast. "It was so called from the beauHis back grounds are flat and hard, his drawing sometimes tiful appearance it presented to the first discoverers (the uncertain, and his handling frequently very harsh; but Portuguese) in 1450, and, from all accounts, was formerly there is so much grace and delicacy in his females and more fertile than it now is. The island is generally a low children--so much activity in his young men and majesty plain, with some elevated parts near the centre. Salt is the in the elder-so fine a breadth of light and shade-so for- principal article of trade, which the inhabitants exchange cible is the expression of his heads,-that his versions of the for clothing and necessaries. Pigs, goats, sheep, and poultry great works which he copied are more valuable than those may also be had, but they are all lean, and of an inferior of many later and more dexterous artists. He has en quality. The town is on the western side of the island, and graved from the works of Raphael, Michel Angelo, Titian, consists only of about forty or fifty houses, mostly built by neParmigiano, and many of the great painters; for he dis- groes, and rudely constructed. The population of the island played his taste as much in the choice of his subjects as in in 1822 was estimated at about 3000, of whom 300 are re the execution. He has left many engravings from original gular soldiers. The colour of the inhabitants is of all the designs which are characterized by much grace and agree intermediate shades from white to negro jet, owing to interable simplicity, but are wanting in force, and rather scat- marriage. tered in the grouping. Many of his works are very scarce. Bonavista is of an irregular shape, nearly octagonal, sixMalvasia ; Lanzi; Strutt; Cumberland.) teen miles in length, N. and S., and the same in breadth: it BONASSUS. [Bison.] is surrounded by many rocks and shoals. There are two BONAVENTU'RA, ST., was born at Bagnorea in 1221. anchorages, one off the town, called English Road, and the At twenty-one years of age he became a friar of the Order other off the S.E. point, called Portuguese Road; of these of St. Francis, and was sent by his superiors to Paris. He, the former is the more secure, and is perfectly safe in the as well as Thomas Aquinas, of the Dominican Order, be- summer months when the N.E. trade blows constantly. Sixcame involved in contentions with the University of Paris, teen miles to the S.W. is a very dangerous rock called the which denied the academical honours, as well as the exer- Leton Rock, about a mile in extent, nearly level with the cise of public professorship, to individuals of the mendicant water's edge, and with deep water round it. The town lies orders. Pope Alexander IV., being appealed to, summoned | in 16° 9' N. lat., and 22° 57' W. long. the parties before him at Anagni. The mendicant orders (North Atlantic Memoir, fc.) chose Bonaventura and Albertus Magnus to plead their BOND. A bond or obligation, in law, is a deed by which he who makes it. called the obligor, binds himself Lino. Trans. vol. xvi. p. 137. But it should be remembered that Dou to another called the obligee, to pay a sum of money, or to glas describes the egge of his Tetrao Sabini to be dingy white with red spots ; do, or not to do, any other act. It is, in fact, a species oi whereas tte eyes of Bunaria Umbellus are describeri as being spotless. The reader should however be aware that the eggs of different individuals of the covenant. (COVENANT.) kome specie otien vary cousiderably in their marktuen, Bonds for tho payment of money aro the most commorto Page 3
ployment of signs, wh.ch though in some degree unlike at The other works of Bunet attest his industry, but are of first, would become modified and assimilated by intercourse. less utility: Mercurius Compilatitius, seu Index Medico l'he auxiliaries which Bonet made use of in the instruction Practicus, Geneva, 1683, fol.; Medicina Septentrionalis of deaf-mutes were artificial pronunciation, the manual Collatitia,' Geneva, 1685, 2 vols. fol.; Polyalthes,' 3 vols. alphabet, writing, and gesture or the language of signs. fol. Geneva, 1690, 1691, 1693. This is a bulky commentary Minute details of the proceedings of the instructor on these on Johnstoni Syntagma Nosocomices.' several heads are contained in his work. He taught his Bonet became subject to dropsy, and died on the 29th of pupils to understand the Spanish language, and the rules March, 1689, in the seventieth year of his age. He posof grammar. His work fully explains how he proceeded sessed great knowledge, and was distinguished for his mowith the three sorts of words into which he divides the lan- desty and affability. (Eloy, Dictionnaire Historique.) guage, namely, nouns, verbs, and conjunctions; and from BONFA'DIO, JA'COPO, was born in the beginning of the simple name of an object to words which express the the sixteenth century at Gazzano, near Sald, on the banks moral dispositions and the affections of the heart. The of the lake of Garda. He studied at Padua, and aftermanner of teaching the different kinds of conjunctions and wards proceeded to Rome, where he became secretary to verbs is also carefully explained. The philosophical views Cardinal di Bari, with whom he remained three years, presented in the latter portion of his work are replete with which he mentions in his letters as the happiest of his life. practical utility, and are in many respects similar to those Cardinal di Bari having died, Bonfadio entered the service which are acted upon at the different institutions for the of Cardinal Ghinucci, but here he met with an enemy deaf and dumb, in this and other countries. This is the in the person of another dependant of the Cardinal, on work which the abbé de l'Epée designates as one of his whose account Bonfadio left. He was on the point of going * excellent guides in the earlier part of his experience as to Spain with an envoy of the Duke of Mantua to Charles V. an instructor of the deaf and dumb, and the manual alpha- when the envoy suddenly died. He then went to Naples, bet which the abbé adopted, ard which is at present used where he became intimate with Pietro Carnesecchi, who was in the institutions on the continent of Europe and in Ame- afterwards burnt at Rome for heresy. From Naples Bonrica, is nearly the same as the one given in that work. An fadio wandered about several parts of Italy, until he was inaccount of the success of Bonet has been left by Sir Kenelm vited by Bembo, who was then living at Padua, to come to his Digby, in his treatise of Bodies,' from which it appears house, about '1540, and undertake the education of Bembo's that the pupil not only understood others when they spoke, son Torquato. Bonfadio appears to have remained ut Padua but also spoke himself so that others could understand him. five years. From Padua he now and then visited the banks * What at the first he was laughed at for made him, after of his native lake, and also occasionally Coloniola, a villa of some years, be looked on as if he had wrought a miracle. his learned friend Marc Antonio Flaminio. He has praised, In a word, after strange patience, constancy, and pains, he both in his Italian letters and in his Latin verses, the pleasant brought the young lord to speak as distinctly as any man scenery of those places. At one time he had the idea of whoever; and to understand so perfectly what others said, founding an Academy on the banks of the lake of Garda, that he would not lose a word in a whole day's conversation." and he applied to Count Martinengo and other noblemen of (Of Bodies and of Mun's Soul, chap. 28. p. 319.) Sir Kenelm Brescia to countenance his project. Having accepted in Digby and other authors speak of Bonet as a priest : he is 1545 the professorship of philosophy in Genoa, he was comalso said to have been in the service of the prince of Carig- missioned to write the history of the republic. He began it nan, and to have continued his employment as a teacher of from the year 1528, where Foglietta had closed his narrathe leaf and dumb for many years. tive, and continued it till the year 1550. The work, which BONET, THEOPHILUS, an eminent physician, was is written in Latin, is entitled Annalium Genuentium Libri born at Genera on the 5th of March, 1620. His family Quinque, and was published after his death at Pavia, 1586. was originally Italian and of noble rank, but his ancestors It was translated into Italian and published at Genoa the had removed from Rome to the south of France about a same year. Both the text and the translation were published century previous, in order to enjoy the free exercise of their at Brescia, 1759. In describing the organic changes effected religion. His grandfather being compelled to have recourse in the constitution by Andrea Doria in 1528, the conspiracy to some means of gaining a livelihood, chose the profession of Fieschi, and other then recent events, Bonfadio spoke of of medicine, and obtained such eminence, that he was in several individuals connected with those factions in a tone vited to Turin to become physician to Charles-Emmanuel, which probably offended their relatives, who were still power. Duke of Savoy. But he appears to have possessed too ful at Genoa. However this may be, he was arrested in much independence of mind to have retained the court fa- the year 1550, beheaded in prison, and his body publicly vour, and he consequently removed to Lyons. Here, in burnt. Of the contemporary writers who relate this catas-1556, Andrew Bonet was born. He also practised medicine, trophe, some are silent about the charges against him, and and after losing his first wife he removed to Geneva, where, others hint that he was sentenced upon an accusation of having married a second time, he had two sons, John and unnaiural practices, but in reality through political aniTheophilus. The hereditary celebrity of the family deter- mosity, or, as it was called, “reason of state.' 'Mazzuchelli mined both to study medicine; but though the former gives at length, with his usual accuracy, all these various arrived at great eminence, he left no work to testify his authorities, and concludes by leaving the question of Bonability. Theophilus, after having visited many of the most fadio's guilt involved in doubt, as he could find no docu. celebrated universities, took the degree of doctor of medi- ments existing at Genoa of the trial. The register of the cine in 1643. Soon after this the Duke of Longueville ap- prison merely states the sentence, but does not give the pointed him his physician, and he quickly rose to eminence charge. The proceedings of trials at that time were secret, by the success of his treatment. and even the charges on which capital sentences were During the course of his practice he was diligent in col. founded were not always made known to the public. Bonlecting observations on the progress and terminations of fadio's Genoese Annals' are generally admired for their diseases, which formed the basis of his subsequent publica- style, which in many passages reminds the reader of Saltions. His earliest work was • Pharos Medicorum, id est, lust. Bonsadio's Italian Letters, already mentioned, have Cautelæ, Animalversiones et Observationes Practicæ,' been collected and published by Mazzuchelli , Brescia, 1746. Geneva, 1668, 2 vols. 12mo. Each time this work was re- They are considered among the best specimens of Italian printed he enlarged it and altered the title, so that the edi. epistolary composition, and are also interesting for the detion of 1679 was called • Labyrinthus Medicus extricatus,'scriptions of places, manners, and incidents. He also 4to. Genera; and that of 1687, Methodus Vitandorum wrote Carmina. 12mo., Verona, 1740; Rime, which are Errorum qui in Praxi occurrunt. 4to. praised by Crescimbeni, and are found scattered in ra Incurable deafness having compelled him to retire from rious collections; and an Italian translation of Cicero pro practice, he devoted his time to digesting his observations, Milone. and published his celebrated work, in 1679, entitled 'Se- BONIFACE I. was elected bishop of Rome after the pulchretum, seu Anatomia Practica,' 2 vols. folio, Genera, death of Zosimus, A.D. 419. Part of the clergy, supported which Mangetus republished with additions at Geneva in by Symmachus, prefect of Rome, elected Eulalius, but the 1700, 3 vols. folio. This formed the basis of the great work Emperor Honorius, who was then at Ravenna, confirmed of Morgagni,“ De Causis et Sedibus Morborum,' who highly Boniface's eleetion. Several letters from Boniface to the esteemed the labours of his predecessor. Lieutaud also bishops of Gaul, concerning matters of discipline, and to availed himself of this valuable repertory of facts in morbid the bishops of Africa, who would not allow of appeals to the anatomy. see of Rome, are in Constant's collection, and give a favour Page 4
fruit, and has good pastures. Bonifacio is 44 m. S.E. o. Boniface died at Rome in 1404, and was succeeded by Ajaccio, in 41° 23' N. lat. and 9° 10' E. long. Innocent VII. The church of Rome has ever since ac- BONIFACIO, STRAITS OF, divide Sardinia from Corknowledged Urban and Boniface and their successors as sica. The narrowest part between Longosardo in Sardinia and legitimate popes, and considered Clement and Benedict as the southernmost point of Corsica, E. of the town of Bonianti-popes. (BENEDICT, ANTI-POPR.) facio, is about 10 m. wide. At the E, entrance of the Straits During his pontificate of nearly fifteen years Boniface was are several clusters of islands, the principal of which is the involved in the Italian wars of that turbulent period. He Island of Maddalena, belonging to Sardinia. Near the first favoured the claims of the Angevins to the throne of Corsican coast is the Island of Cavallo, and between that Naples, but afterwards recognised the more fortunate and Maddalena is Santa Maria, with several other islets Ladislaus as king. Perugia and other towns of Umbria and rocks, which make the Mediterranean sailors in general and the Marches acknowledged the pope as their suzerain avoid passing through the Straits, unless they are compelled in Boniface's time. Boniface is charged with being addicted The land on both sides of the Straits is mountainous The to a worldly policy, having seized upon the ecclesiastical islands in these Straits were noted for contraband trade revenues for temporal purposes, and enriched his brothers during the maritime war in the time of Napoleon. and nephews. BONIN, or ARZOBISPO ISLANDS, a group of BONIFACE, SAINT, a native of Devonshire, was born islands in the North Pacific, lying about N. by E., extendabout A.D. 680. He became a monk, and resided for a time ing from 27° 44' N. lat., seen as far to the southward as in a convent at Southampion, where he acquired reputation 26° 30', and probably running much farther in that difor learning and piety. When thirty-six years of age he rection. In longitude the known portion is comprised beset out for Rome, where he expressed to Pope Gregory II. tween 143° and 144o E. long. The only account of them is his wish to preach the gospel to the heathen nations of from the visit of the Blossom in 1827; and Captain Beechey Germany, where two of his countrymen, Wilfred and Willi- observes that they correspond so well with the description brod, from Northumberland, as well as Kilian, an Irish of a group called Yslas del Arzobispo in a work published bishop, had preceded him. The pope having sanctioned many years ago at Manilla (Navigacion Especulativa y his vocation, ‘Boniface joined Willibrod in Frisia, from Pratica), as to leave no doubt of their being the same. They whence he repaired to Thuringia, Franconia, and other had been expunged from the chart all but three, called parts of central Germany. There he found a strange mix- Los Volcanos, as Gore, Perouse, and Kruzenstern had passed iure of idolatrous and Christian rites, and the people plunged to the N. and S. without seeing any other than these; but in ignorance and barbarism. For more than thiriy years in 1823 they reappeared in Arrowsmith's map. he laboured in converting and civilizing the rude natives, They consist of three distinct groups: the northern, called and he well deserved the title which has bee : given him of Parry's Group, are mostly small islands and rocks. The • the Apostle of Germany. He founded four cathedrals, central, called Baily's Group, consists of larger islands, sepaErfurt, Bonaberg, Aichstadt and Würzburg, with a school rated from each other by narrow and deep channels. In the attached to each, and he established numerous monasteries southern group the islands appear to be still larger and both for monks and nuns. These monasteries were generally higher, but of this portion little is known, as Captain built upon uncultivated grounds, which were cleared and Beechey had not time to examine them. It appears that in tilled by the new inmates, and thus agriculture kept pace 1823 a whale-ship commanded by Mr. Cottin anchored with the diffusion of Christianity. The monastery of Fulda, among this southern group, and that Mr. C. gave his name founded by Sturm, one of Boniface's disciples, was the means to the port, and was the first who furnished any certain inof reclaiming a vast tract of ground which had been till formation concerning this arenipelago. then covered by forests. In discussing in our days the The islands are of volcanic formation, and smoke is seen question of the use and abuse of monastic institutions, we to issue from some of them : they are steep and high, and ought not to overlook the fact, that monks were the great wooded to the shores. The coasts are steep and craggy civilizers of modern Europe in the dark ages which followed in many places basaltic columns of a grey or greenish the destruction of the Roman Empire. Boniface was made hue appear, resembling the Giant's Causeway in miniaarchbishop of Mainz, and metropolitan of all the new dio- ture; olivine, hornblende, and chalcedony are found. The ceses on the right bank of the Rhine. He sent for mis- islands are surrounded with sharp rugged rocks, and sionaries from Britain to assist him in his arduous task, and often with coral reefs: the water around them is very Willibald, Wunibald, Burchard, Lullus, Lebuin, Willihad, deep. They are quite uninhabited, but at the time of the and the nuns Lioba, Thecla, Walberg and others, obeyed Blossom's visit two of the crew of a whaler which had been his summons. Boniface was supported by Carloman, and wrecked in Port Lloyd were living on one of the islands, afterwards by Pepin, sons of Charles Martel, whose authority and had got a piece of ground under cultivation. The rest or influence extended over a considerable part of Germany. of the crew had been taken off - another whaler, but these : Without the protection of the Frank prince (he observes two preferred remaining. The islands abound in the in one of his letters to his friends at Winchester) I could cabbage and fan palms, the former of which is an ex. neither govern the people nor protect the priests and vir. cellent vegetable, areca, pandanus, tamanu of Otaheite, and gins consecrated to God; without his prohibitions, without various other trees : the sea also contains abundance of turtle the penalties which he denounces on those who refuse to ray, eels, cray-fish, and a great variety of others, of the obey me, vain would be the attempt in this country to abolish most beautiful colours. Of birds, there are brown herons, heathen ceremonies or idolatrous sacrifices.' (Epistola S. plover, rails, snipe, wood-pigeons, crows, and small birds; Bonifacii, quoted by Dunham in History of the Germanic also a species of vampire bat, some of which measured Empire, vol. ii.) În reading the regulations of Boniface three feet across the extended wings, with a body eight for the discipline of his flocks, we are enabled to judge of or nine inches in length. No quadrupeds were seen. The the low state of morality which he found in Germany, of the islands are subject to earthquakes, and in winter to violent difficulties he had to encounter, not only on the part of the storms, in one of which (January, 1826) the water rose heathens, but from the converts themselves, and of the twelve feet in Port Lloyd. The currents about the islands beneficial effects which his injunctions and example must run very strong, and principally to the northward. have had on the people at large. In 755 Boniface again The name Bonin, by which they are known on our maps, visited Frisia, a country still in great measure pagan. is derived from Japanese accounts of a group called Bon-in Kavir.g assembled a multitude of converts he pitched tents Sima; but setting aside the geographical inaccuracy of the in a field for the purpose of giving them confirmation, when position there assigned them, it appears from the description a band of heathens fell upon the encampment, and killed given by M. Abel Remusat, in ihe Journal des Savans, or dispersed the congregation. Boniface was among the September, 1817, that these cannot be the same. They killed. Vita S. Bonifacii in Mabillon, tom. iv., and Duh- appear to abound in gool harbours, and are now frequently ham's History of the Germanic Empire.) visited by whalers, who go to them for turtle, fish, and the BONIFACIO, a town Corsica, on the S. extremity of cabbage palm. (Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific ind the island, facing the coast of Sardinia. It is a fortified Behring's Straits.) town, has a good harbour, and about 3,000 inhabitants. BONN, one of the eleven minor circles of the circle oi The town is built on a hill which projects into the sea, Bo- Cologne, which forms that part of the Rhenish provinces nifacio was originally a colonv of the Genoese in the 14th belonging to tho crown of Prussia, which is designated 'tho province of Cleves, Juliers, and Berg.' It consists of a por-, banks of the river. It has at present the appearance rather tion of the former possessions of the archbishops of Cologne, of a modern than of an antient town, and though it cannot and contains within an area of about 105 square miles, 1 town, be termed a well-built place, for several of the streets arus 58 villages, and 28 hamlets, 78 churches and other places narrow and ill-lighted, its appearance at a distance, with its of worship, 114 public buildings, and about 6800 private white palace, now the university building, the steeples dwelling-houses. The Rhine, with the exception of the behind, and the gardens all round it, is cheerful and pleasburgomastership of Vilich, which lies on the right bank ing. The air is at times bleak and cold, in consequence of of that river, is its eastern boundary, The soil is the currents occasioned by the heights that hang over its throughout productive, and favourable to the growth of all | low site, which is placed at the point where the Rhine descriptions of grain; the average annual produce of which emerges from between those heights; the evaporation froin in good years is estimated at about 392,800 Berlin bushels, the river also renders the atmosphere damp. ' Bonn forms or 72,800 British imperial quarters. Wine and tobacco are a circular figure of nearly equal diameter from north to also raised. The population, which was 35,202 in 1816, south and east to west : the distance from the Cologne to 38,952 in 1825, and 42,447 in 1831, is at present about the Coblenz gate does not exceed ten or twelve minutes' mo44,800. Exclusive of the chief town and university, the derate walk. It contains above 1100 houses, built in a subcircle contains one gymnasium, and one Protestant and stantial manner, twenty-nine public edifices, eight churches forty-four Roman Catholic national or elementary schools. and chapels, nine mills and manufactories, five gates, In every forty inhabitants there is not more than about and a population of about 12,000 (1789, 9560; 1800, 8833 ; one Protestant. The burgomastership of Bonn, one of the 1811, 9167; 1823, 10,860; and 1828, 11,526), besides the nine into which the circle is divided, contains the town garrison, and between 700 and 800 students. The inhaand university of the same name, a place of some antiquity, bitants derive the principal means of their subsistence situated on a gentle eminence, in a pleasant and fertile from the university, from their fields, gardens, and vinecourtry, on the left bank of the Rhine. In records of a yards. The chief manufactures in the town are cottons, remote date it was called Bunna, a word which Arndt de- silks, and sulphuric acid. The buildings without the rives from the Celtic · Buhn,' a spot containing productive gate are on the increase, and so disposed, under the difields, pastures, and water-courses. Bonna became the rection of a board of embellishment (Verschönerungshead-quarters of the sixth Roman legion, and, according to commission), as to be ornamental to the town. Among Antoninus's • Itinerary,' was afterwards kept up as one of the open areas the market-place is the most spacious ; but the Roman strong-holds on the Rhine. It rose ultimately to the square planted with trees next the Minster, and be a place of some note, and was attached to the second of thence called the Minster-square, is the finest. There is the Germanic provinces A.D. 70. According to Tacitus (Hist. no public edifice in Bonn to be compared with the Minster iv. 20), the Roman troops under Herennius Gallus were de- or church of St. Cassius, an antient Gothic structure, profeated near Bonn by the Batavians under Claudius Civilis : bably of the twelfth or thirteenth century. In the inthe ditches of the place were filled with dead bodies, and terior is a bronze statue of St. Helena, kneeling at the numbers were slain during the confusion by the arrows of feet of the cross, as well as basso-rilievi in white marble, their brother combatants. Bonna and Novesium (or Neuss) representing the birth and baptism of the Saviour. In are repeatedly mentioned in the subsequent account of the church of St. Remigius, there is a fine altarpiece in the Batavian contest as places where the Roman ge- oils, in which Spielberg the painter has represented the nerals mustered their forces. Bonn is less frequently baptism_of Clovis, king of the Franks, by the patron aluded to after this time: it is affirmed by some, though saint. The town-hall, which is on one side of the marketscarcely on sufficient grounds, to have embraced Chris- place, is a handsome edifice in the modern style, with rianity in the 88th year of the Christian æra, in conse- a double tlight of stone steps in front. Bonn has also a quence of the preaching of Maternus, bishop of Cologne; and gymnasium ; is the seat of the superior board of mines it is known that Helena, the mother of Constantine the for the Rhenish possessions of Prussia, of two tribunals for Great, about the year 316 built the church in this town, on civil and criminal affairs, and of a central department for the site of which the Minster church was afterwards built. taxes and crown revenues. Among other scientific assoIn the year 355 Bonn was destroyed by an irruption of Ger- ciations it possesses an academy of naturalists, styled the man tribes, and in 359 was rebuilt by the Emperor Julian. Leopold-Caroline Academy' (which was first instituted at Under the Frankish sovereigns it is said to have borne the Schweinfurt in 1652, received extensive privileges from the name of Verona : in 755 Charlemagne crossed the Rhine at emperors Leopold I. and Charles VII., was afterwards reBonn, in his second campaign against the Saxons; and in moved to Erlangen, and ultimately transferred to this place 881 it was almost ruined by the Normans. In 1240 it was in 1818), and the society of the Lower Rhine for promoting surrounded with walls and a ditch by the archbishop of Co- the sciences of natural history and medicine. Upon the relogne, who conferred a variety of immunities upon it: from establislıment of the university in the year 1818, Fredericthe year 1320 it was the constant residence of the arch- William, the present king of Prussia, appropriated the bishops of Cologne. The Emperor Charles IV. was crowned electoral palace at the southern end of the town to acahere in 1316, about which time it had risen into sufficient demical purposes; in the rescript under which it was reimportance to conclude a treaty of defensive alliance with opened his majesty expresses his expectation that the Cologne and other towns on the Rhine, when it under- university will proceed in the spirit of the act for its endowtook to furnish an auxiliary force of 500 men. During the ment, and promote true piety, sound learning, and wholeThirty years' war Bonn was exposed to great sufferings and some morals among the youth resorting to it for study. vicissitudes. In 1673 the French, who had possessed them- It received the title of the Rhenish University of Fredericselves of the place, were besieged in it by the prince of William,' in the year 1828, and is composed of five faculties, Orange and Montecuculi, and surrendered after a slight Protestant theology, Roman Catholic theology, medicine, resistance: having regained possession of it fifteen years jurisprudence, and philosophy. There are attached to it afterwards, they extended and greatly strengthened its de- forty professors in ordinary, and ten adjuncts (ausserordentfences. In 1689 it was taken by Frederic III., elector ofliche Professoren), ana four seminaries, viz., one for students Brandenburg, after a three-months' siege; and in 1703 was of Protestant theology, and another for students of homiletic captured by the duke of Marlborough, the operations of the catechetical Protestant theology, a third for philological siege having been conducted by the celebrated Marshal students, and a fourth for the natural sciences. It has a Coehorn. The fortifications were razed in 1717; and ir library of about 80,000 volumes, a medical institute for clinic, 1777 Maximilian Frederic, elector of Cologne, founded the and another for poly-clinic, with which an establishment for academy, which was enlarged into a university in 1784. the cure of invalid students is combined, a clinicum for This university was dissolved by the French, and remained surgery and diseases of the eye, another for obstetrics, an in abeyance while they held Bonn in Napoleon's time, but anatomical theatre and museum, a cabinet of surgical inwas re-established upon a more extensive scale by the pre- struments, an agricultural institute, a botanical garden, a sent king of Prussia, on the 18th October, 1818, the twenty- museum of natural history, geological collections, an appafourth article of the act of the congress of Vienna having ratus for natural and experimental philosophy, a museum of transferred it to him as part of the provinces of the Rhine. antiquities, &c., and an observatory. At a distance of less Page 5
usually before numerous congregations. The Jesuit mis- | preceding evening, giving the blood to those who were the moded by their pecking. He observed that they were ranged The Japanese priesthood comprises individuals of all in pairs, and conjectured that they were male and female. ranks of society. Persons of high birth, even the sons of He succeeded in making some fly away by the blows he bekings, are known to have entered the order of Bonzes, but stowed on them, but the greater part remained in spite of the majority belong to the lower and poorer classes. Many his efforts to compel them to take flight. De Gennes, in his Bonzes earn their livelihood by superintending funerals. voyage to the Straits of Magalhaens, says, that in the Island All claim it as the exclusive prerogative of their order to of Ascension there were such quantities of boobies, that the speak upon the religion of Buddha, the doctrines of which sailors k.lled five or six at a time with one blow of a stick. they will not allow to be touched upon by any one else. The Vicomte de Querhoent says that the French soldiers The principal moral precepts which they inculcate are five, killed an immense quantity at this same island, and that viz., -not to kill, not to steal, chastity, veracity, and absti- their loud cries when disturbed at night were quite overvence from spirituous liquors. powering. There are convents for the male as well as for the female This apparent exception to the general rule of self-preBonzes, some of which have their own fixed annual reve- serving instinct is so remarkable, that we are led to look for nues, while others are maintained by voluntary contribu- some cause, and perhaps this is to be found in the structure tions from the people. The discipline enforced in these of the animal ; for, according to many writers whose veconvents is described as rather strict. At different hours racity cannot be questioned, the boobies stay to be taken during the day the sounding of a bell summons the inmates and killed after they have become familiar with the effect to their common devotions. In the evening the prefect produced by the blows or shot of their persecutors. In the assigns to every one a special, theme for his meditations. case of most other animals which, from not knowing his After midnight all assemble to sing hymns before the altar. power, have suffered man to approach them to their de Their meals they take in comnion, and those who conform struction, alarm has been soon taken, the idea of danger strictly to the rule abstain from meat and fish, as well as has been speedily associated with his appearance, and from wine and all spirituous liquors. Some of the convents safety has been sought in flight; but the wings of the are said to contain large libraries. booby are so long and its legs so short, that, when once There is a sect of Bonzes distinguished by the name Iko, at rest on level ground, the bird has great difficulty in the members of which are permitted to marry, but only bringing the former into action, and, when so surprised, those who are rich avail themselves of that privilege. it has no resource but to put on a show of resistance with (Lamas and TALAPOINS.] its beak, which is, to be sure, generally despised by the (Bern. Varenii, Descriptio Regni Japonici, Cantabrig. aggressor. 1673, p. 149, seq.; Kämpfer, Beschreibung von Japan, In the cases recorded by Bligh, the birds were probably vol. i. p. 251.) fatigued by wandering too far from the rocky shores, which BOOBY (zoology), the English name for a genus of are their ordinary haunts. There they are generally to be Pelecanidæ, Dysporus of Illiger, Morus of Vieillot, Les seen constantly on the wing over the waves which beat at Frus of the French, separated, with good reason, from the the foot of the crags, intent on fishing. Though so well true pelicans by Brisson under the name of Sula. furnished with oars, they are said to swim but seldom, and The Boobies or Gunnets are thus characterised :-the never to dive. Their mode of taking their prey is by dashbill strong, longer than the head, conically elongated, very ing down from on high with unerring aim upon those fishes stout at the basc, cleft beyond the eyes, compressed towards which frequent the surface, and instantly rising again into the point, which is slightly curved; edges of both mandi- the air. They walk with difficulty, and, when at rest on bles somewhat serrated; nostrils basal, long, linear, almost land, their attitude is nearly vertical, and they lean on the hidden in the furrow of the bill;* face and throat naked; stiff feathers of the tail, like the cormorants, as a third feet short, robust, very much drawn up into the abdomen; point of support. The ledges of rocks or cliffs covered with three toes in front and one behind, short and articulated herbage are the places generally selected for the nest, and inwardly, all connected by a single membrane ; the nail of there, in great companies, they lay their eggs, each hen the middle toe serrated : wings long, the first primary bird depositing from two to three. The young birds, for longest, or of equal length with the second; tail conical or some days after their exclusion, are covered with a down so wedge-shaped, composed of twelve feathers. long and thick, that they resemble powder puffs made of The term • Booby' is more particularly applied by naviga- swan's down. tors to that species (Sula fusca of Brisson) which inhabits The boobies seldom wander more than twenty leaynes the desolate islands and coasts where the climate is warm from land, to which they usually return every evening, and or even temperate throughout the greater part of the globe. their appearance is considered by mariners as a sure token The apparent stupidity of the boobies is proverbial: calmly of their vicinity to some island or coast. waiting to be knocked on the head as they sit on shore, or GANNETS or BOOBIES OF WARM CLIMATES. perching on the yard of a ship till the sailor climbs to their resting-place and takes them off with bis hand, they fall The state of our information as to this division of the an easy prey to the most artless bird-catcher. Even Byron's genus is by no means satisfactory ; for the species are not shipwrecked wretches, though well determined. As an example, we may take the bird above alluded to, Sulu fusca of Brisson and others, Pele- Stagnant on the sea They lay like carcases,' canus Sula of Linnæus, Le Fou brun of the French, the Booby of Sloane and Ray. 'caught two boobies and a noddy;' and the incident actu- The colour of this species is blackish-brown or ashyally divl occur in Bligh's celebrated boat-voyage, consequent brown above and whitish beneath; the primaries are black on the mutiny on board the Bounty, when he and his and the naked skin about the face is reddish; the orbits boat's crew were in a most deplorable state. and base of the bill are yellow, and the point of the bill is * Monday, the 25th,' says Bligh, 'at noon, some noddies brown; the legs are of a straw colour. came so near to us that one of them was caught by hand. In length the brown booby is about two feet five inches, ** In the evening, several boobies flying very near to us, the bill measuring four and a half inches or thereabout and we had the good fortune to catch one of them. ** I directed the tail ten : the young birds are spotted with white and the bird to be killed for supper, and the blood to be given brown. to three of the people who were the most distressed for want It is almost impossible to open the pages of the old voyof food. The body, with the entrails, beak, and feet, I di- agers who have fallen in with these boobies without finding vided into eighteen shares. * * * Tuesday, the 26th. In some entertaining accounts of the constant persecution to we caught another booby, so that Providence which the latter are subjected by the frigates or man-ofappeared to be relieving our wants in an extraordinary war birds. (FRIGATE.) Lesson, indeed, doubts this. He manner. The people were overjoyed at the addition to their says, 'the boobies have been so named because it has been dinner, which was distributed in the same manner as on the supposed that the frigates compelled them to disgorge the fish which they had taken ; but this appears to us to be Mob!agn says that the Ganges, Sula Barsina, has no nosirils. Page 6
These transactions, when digested in the journal, would | to be 101 tons on hand ;-more or less there cannot be give rise to entries of the following effect: without either errors or fraud. After satisfactory proof of BANKERS. Dr. to Coxsols. the fact, a valuation may lnd made, either at the market £4000. at 92t, less Brokerage $ 3695 00 price or the cost price, according to the purpose intended by SOLD LEDER. Dr. to IRON. the stock-taking, which is sometimes to pay out the share Amount sold as per Day Book, page 1 to 22 3162 10 0 of a deceased or retiring partner, sometimes to admit a new 550 Tons. one, and sometimes in salutary compliance with an annual CASH. Dr. to SUNDRIES. custom. Suppose in this case the valuation to be 5l. per SOLD LEDGER, as per Cash Book 758 16 0 Bulls RECEIVABLE, No. 8 8 14 0 ton, the consequence would be the following journal entry:- 767 100 IRON. Dr. to PROFIT and Loss. SUNDRIES. Dr. to Cash. 101 tons on hand this day £5 505 00 BANKERS, as per Cash Book 650 0 0 Less Dr. balance of iron account in Ledger 19 š o Sold LEDOER (Athelstan) 25 0 -492 15 0 TAXES CHAROES 28 15 6 Suppose the consols were sold out half a year before, and 726 5 6 consequently a dividend due; suppose, also, the value of SUNDRIES. Dr. to Sold LEDOER. 2232 12 0 provender in the stable to be 211. 88. 6d.; the horse to be Bills RECEIVABLE, No. 1 to 18, as per Bills-Rec. Bouk . 12 12 0 DISCOUNT OUTWARD:, particulars from Sold Ledger. 15 considered one-seventh less valuable than when he was Bad DEBTs, compromised 28 14 6 14 7 3 bought, and the premises to have undergone a deterioration 2259 | 3 of 10 per cent., these matters would be thus recorded in the journal:SUNDRIES. Dr. to Bills RECEIVABLE. BANKERS-1, 4, 5, 12, 13, 16 898 17 4 PROFIT and Loss. Dr. SUNDRIES. Sold LEDGER (Athelstan) HORSE Ledyer Balance 35 00 929 17 Valued this day at 30 0 0 5 00 Bought LEDGER. Dr. to Bills PAYABLE. PREMISES. Leilge: Balance 459 8 6 3602 3 6 As per Bills-Payable Book Valued this day at 0 0 45 6 SUNDRIES. Dr to BANKERS. STABIL. Ledger Balance 63 14 10 BILLS PAYABLE, No.1 975 0 Stuck on hand this day 21 8 6 No. 4 4528 42 6 4 1427 86 CONSOLS. Botont LEDOER-Chandler & Co. 63 14 0 Half Year's Dividend due on £4000 60 00 HORSE CHAROES : ; 55 17 3 £152 14 10
1591 199 The effect of all these entries, when posted in the ledger, BOUGHT LEDGER. Dr. to DisCOUNT INWAND. 25 o 10 appears in a new balance-sheet, which now represents the Jones £25.-Chandler 10d. actual state of the concern, with every account in the ledger When these entries have been properly posted in the adjusted to the same moment of time ; for the book-keeper summary ledger, and added to the accounts already there who does not, on these occasions, refer every account to the of Premises, Iron, Stable, and Bought Ledger, the general same moment of time discovers that sort of ignorance in effect will come out in the following balances : his art which Hogarth exposes and satirizes, for the benefit Bankers. 3661 17 Consols 3693 0 0 of other artists, in his celebrated picture of False PerCash 41 4 6 Bills payable 2174 15 0 Bills receivable 1295 Ö 8 spective. Discouut inw. 25 0 10 NEW BALANCE-SHEET. Sold Ledger 199 29 5197 5 6 Iron 12 5 0 Bankers 3661 17 7 Consols 3755 66 Premises 452 86 Cash 41 4 6 Bills payable 2174 15 0 Bills receivable . 1295 0 63 14 10 Stable Profit 230 190 35 00 Sold Ledger 199 29 Taxes -5197 5 6 Iren 505 0 Charges Discount outw. 12 12 0 Premises 407 0 0 Bad debts 14 7 3 21 134 20 Horse 30 00
Should a stock-taking be determined upon at this point, The proprietor of the concern, with these authentic the book-keeper, grounding himself upon his balance sheet, data before him, easily collects together all the accounts transfers to an account of profit and loss' all those ba- which are similar in their nature, and draws froin the lances which represent absolute loss or absolute gain, inde- result, the most useful practical inferences. Thus, he -like accounts he possesses a pendently of existing property, because they are matters of finds that in cash and Property of £5197 mere account, and not matters of opinion. Under the sup Out of which his bills payable will require 2174 15 posed state of things, he would therefore of his own accord make the following entries in his journal: 3022 10 6 To which he adds his iron 505 0 0
And finds a free disposable fund of £3527 10 6 Having thus marshalled the foating against the floating accounts, he compares the fixed with the fixed, and finds the premises, horse, and stable to constitute a Total of £458 8 6 The balance-sheet being presented to the employer in the more or less unavailable, from which deducting improved state thus produced, is examined, item by item, The Profit 230 19 0 to ascertain that the property mentioned in the ledger is in for which he is his own creditor, he adds actual existence. The cash, the bills payable and receivable, The Difference 227 9 and the balance at the banker's, are disposed of in a few to the above disposable fund 3527 10 minutes, in all concerns which have the least pretension to regularity of accounts. The sold ledger and bought ledger £375) 0 0 ought to be thoroughly investigated, and tl:e balance, if any, and perceives that if the price of consols is the same as appearing in the summary ledger, ought to be sustained when he sold them out, he can replace them, together with and elucidated by a schedule of the debts composing that the dividend, eren although his premises, horse, and probalance, not only for the sake of proving that so much pro. vender should yield him only 2271. 98. 6d. If he continues perty really exists in the sold, and that all the demands in business, he periodically extracts from his books the same have been discharged from the bought, but also for the pur- sort of information, and by comparing the results in the pose of securing the speedy collection of those debts whicle same way ascertains the progress he has made in a giver may have fallen behind in point of time. With regard to time. In this case the means of living are supposed to be irun, it would be seen by the ledger that 651 tons had been derived from sources independent of the business. If the hought and 550 tons had been sold. There ought, therefore, proprietor had drawn any money for private purposes, he would have been charged with it in a separate account, means of a paved road. The town stands on the banks under his own name. Page 7
Character. Flamsleed, Piazzi, Bradley, &c.
Astron. Society Maguitude.
Astron. Society. Magnitude.
but it is as frequently called Arctophylax.by the antients, theatre, who chanced to be in London, and with him ho which means the guard of the bear. Aratus calls it by went to Ireland in June, 1698. His first appearance in both names. Dublin was in the part of Oronoko, and his success, deArctophylax, vulgo qui dicitur esse Bootes,' cided from the commencement, continued for two years is the version of Cicero. Both Aratus and Hyginus place increasing daily, when he determined to return to England, A RCTURUS in or under the girdle ; but it is usual to and having by letter reconciled himself a second time with draw it between the legs of the figure. Manilius also his family, he obtained from Lord Fitzharding a recomuses both names. The constellation is connected mytho- mendation to Mr. Betterton, who with great candour and logically with the fables of Arcas, Icarus, Lycaon, and kindness engaged and assisted him to the extent of his others. The Arabic translators of Ptolemy rendered Bootes power. In 1701 Mr. Booth made his first bow in the by bellower or vociferator. According to the old figures at- Theatre Royal, Drury-Lane, in the character of Maximus, tached to Hyginus, he is represented as a man with a spear in Lord Rochester's · Valentinian.' His reception was en in the right hand (viewed from the back-Bayer) and a thusiastic, and he shortly established himself in public sickle in the left. The modern figures represent a man favour, as second only to his great friend and instructor with a club in the right hand (viewed in front), and in the Betterton. In 1712, on the production of Mr. Addison's left the string which holds the two dogs (Canes Venatici). Cato,' Mr. Booth performed the principal character, and It would seem to be probable that the Great Bear was ori- was complimented by the Tories, who presented him with ginally either an agricultural animal or instrument (an ox, fifty guineas, collected in the boxes during the performance, an ass, or a waggon), and Bootes the driver. as a slight acknowledgment of his honest opposition to a The stars in Bootes are as follows : perpetual dictator, and his dying so bravely in the cause of liberty.' The managers of the theatre also presented him Catalogue of Catalogue of with an equal sum, in consideration of the great success his Catalogue of talents had secured to the play; and shortly afterwards Queen Anne, at the request of Lord Bolingbroke, granted a special license recalling all former ones, and nominating Mr. Booth joint manager with Wilks, Cibber, and Dogget. In 1727 Booth was attacked by a violent fever, which lasted forty-six successive days without intermission, and 1 15556 21 16254 B 42 1708 3 from the effects of which he never perfectly recovered. In 2 1557| 6s 22 6 14 4317105 1729 he was prevailed on to play, for seven nights only, in 15686 0 23 16394 4117145 • The Double Falsehood,' and they were his last perform15694 45 17155 After four years' distressing alienation of mind, he 5 15774 25 1643 4 6 46 17196 expired, May 10, 1733, of a complication of disorders, in the 1578 51 26 16457 k 7 fifty-third year of his age. Mr. Booth was twice married. 7 15837 Y 27 16463 X 48 17305 first in 1704, to a daughter of Sir William Barkham of Nor8 15873 23 } 16505 49 17333 folk, Bart., who died in 1710 without issue; and, secondly, I? 15905 29 16593) M 5117494 11719, to Miss Hester Santlow, or Saintlow, a celebrated 11 1599 68 16603 (36) 17376 beautiful and wealthy actress, who survived him, but also d 13 161115 31 16625 (69) 16326 without issue. His will, a copy of which is printed in the 14 16166 16646 (73) 1636 57 London Magazine for 1733, bears strong testimony of his v? 15 16186 31 16666 (145) 16586 regard for her, and assigns his reasons for bequeathing to 16 16201 35 167041 (193) 16856 her the whole of his fortune, which he acknowledges he 17 4 36 16723 (226) 16986 received from her on the day of their marriage, but which t? 18 16276 15 16864 (291) 17206 he had diminished at least one-third. λ 19 16234 41 | 7075 [1848] 16216 Booth's masterpiece as an actor is said by Cibber to have y? 20 116285 been Othello, but his favourite part was the far less im portant one of the Ghost in ‘Hamlet,' a performance, says In the preceding, we have availed our selves of the edition Macklin, which has never been imitated successfully. His of Flamsteed's Catalogue, just printed by the Admiralty, tone, manner, and gait were so solemn and unearthly, that under the superintendence of Mr. Baily We have entirely the audience appeared to be under the impression that a followed his magnitudes so far as they go; and the query positive spectre stood before them. The soles of his shoes attached to a letter indicates that it is the letter which has were covered with felt so as to make no noise upon the stage, been commonly used, but which has not been admitted by which he glided more than walked over, thus completing Mr. Baily in his revision of the nomenclature and restoration the ill on. Victor, speaking of his person, says he was of Bayer. We shall adopt the same plan in future. The of a middle stature, five feet eight, his form rather inclining numbers are Flamsteed's: those in () are Piazzi's: those to the athletic, though nothing clumsy or heavy, his air and in [ ] Bradley's. deportment naturally graceful, with a marking eye, and a BOOTH, BARTON. This eminent actor was de- manly sweetness in his countenance. His voice was comscended from an antient and honourable family, being the pletely harmonious, from the softness of the flute to the third son of John Booth, Esq., a near relation of Henry extent of the trumpet: his attitudes were all picturesque ; Booth, Earl of Warrington, in Lancashire. He was born he was noble in his designs, and happy in his execution. in 1681, and educated at Westminster by the famous Dr. He was an amiable, good-hearted man, a lively companion, Busby. Becoming at a very early age remarkable for the and diffident of his own abilities, by which means, says his grace of his action and the sweetness of his voice, he was biographer, he acquired the love and esteem of every one. selected to perform the character of Pamphilus in the 'An- So much was he in favour with the rich and noble of his dria' of Terence, at one of the customary school-exhibitions. day, that though he had no equipage of his own, there was The great applause he met with on this occasion was, by not a nobleman in the kingdom, says Chetwood, who had so his own confession, the first spur to his theatrical ambition; many sets of horses at his command. The chariot-and-six and on being removed to Cambridge at the age of seven- of some one or another was sure to be waiting for him every teen, to the great annoyance of his parents, who had in- night to take him, after the play, to Windsor, where the tended him for the church, he ran away from Trinity Col- court was then kept, and to bring him back the following lege, and joined a company of strolling players. The mis- day in time for the theatre. deeds of one of the actors, while at Bury in Suffolk, caused BOOTHIA. [N. West Passage.] the dispersion of the company, and young Booth returned BOOTON, an island of the eastern seas, lying off the to London in great distress. He was speedily forgiven, and S.E. extremity of the island of Celebes. The 5th parallel S. kindly received by his family; but his stage fever had by no and the 123rd meridian E. intersect one another about the means abated, and in one of its fiercest paroxysms he abso- middle of the island. Booton is about 85 m. long from N. to lutely engaged with a Mrs. Mins to perform at Bartholo- S., and its average breadth is about 20 m.: it is separated mew Fair, where he achieved such renown, that Betterton from the island of Pangansane, or Passangane, by a narrow heard of him, and was prevented engaging him for Drury- strait, the water in which is deep enough to allow the passage Lane only by the fear of offending the noble family to of large vessels : this passage is called the Strait of Booton. which he was related. Shortly afterwards Booth formerl an The island is mountainous and woody, but is well cultiacquaintance with Ashbury, the manager of the Dublin vated in parts, yielding abundant crops of rice, maize, yams Page 8
A, The shaded parts of the map are the limits of N, Place Dauphine. a, b, c, Walls of Bourdvaux in later times, marked the Roman Burdegala, and the portion encir- 0, Cours XII. Mars. by a strong line. cled nearest the river is the antient port of the P, Allées d'Angoulême and de Borri, d, Cours d' Albret same. Q. Rue Chapeau Rouge. e, Cours de Tourny. B, Le Palais Gallien or Amphitheatre. R, Place Lainé, f. Cours du Jardin Public. C, The Stream Divitia, s, Palais or Château Royal. 9, Allées de Tourny. D, Hôtel de Ville. T, Principal Theatre. h, Quai de Chartrons. E Château Trompette. U, Cathedral. i, Quai de Bacalan. P, Castle of Ha, now a prison. V, Public Cemetery, formerly Vineyard of th. k, Jardin Public. 3, Fort Ste. Croix, or St. Louis, Chartreuse. 1, La Bastide. H, The Bridge. W, Collége Royal, or High School. 1, Ste. Croix Suburd. I, The Custom House. X, School for the Deaf and Dumb 2, St. Julien do. K, The Exchange. Y, Hôtel de l'Académie Royale. 3, Ste. Eulalée do. L. Royal Building Yard. Z, Fonndling Hospital. 4, St. Saurin M, Place Royale. 5, Chartrons de the Latin writers give Burdigala and Burdegala. The im- | temperature of the sky is mild, and great the liberality (i. e. portance of Burdigala is shown by the circumstance, that fertility) of the watered earth. Long is the spring and it was made the capital of the province of Aquitania Se- short the winters; and close at hand are wood-crowned emicunda' in the subdivision of the Gallic provinces, about the nences.* The waters are ruffled with tides like those of middle or latter end of the fourth century. Ausonius, a the ocean. The form of the walls is quadrangular, and so Latin poet of the fourth century, himself a native of this lofty with its high towers, that (their) summits pierce the place, has left a description of it in his poem Claræ Urbes, airy clouds. You will admire the well-arranged [distinctas, or Ordo Nobilium Urbium, from which we take the follow- adorned] streets within, the disposition of the houses, ing extract: and that the broad-wa) [plateas) still (justly) preserve Impia iamdudum condemno silentia, quod te, their pame: and then [you will admire] the gatés correO patria, insignem Baccho, fluuiisque, uirisque, sponding to the streets which cross at right angles, (directa Moribus ingeniisque hominum, procerumque senatu, compita,) and the bed of the stream from a spring, tlowing Non inter primas memorem : quasi conscius urbis Exiguæ, immeritas dubitem contingere laudes. through the midst of the city: and when Father Ocean Non pudor hinc robie. Nec enim mihi barbara Rheni has filled this with his up-flowing tide, you will see the Ora, nec Arctvo domus est glacialis in Hæmo; whole water covered with fleets.' Burdigala est natale wolum : clementia cæli Mitis ubi, et riguæ lauga indulgentia terræ; Besides the stream mentioned in the above extract, Auso- Ver longum, brumæqne breues, iuga frondea subsunt. nius notices another which supplied a handsomely adorned Feruent æquoreos imitale fuenta meatus. Quadrua nurorum specios, sic turribus altis and copious fountain, and which he calls Divona. The site Ardua, ut aerias intreut fastig ia nubes. of the Roman Burdigala, as we gather from the above Distinctas interne ujas mirere, domorum extract, was a quadrangle: the greater diameter of this Dispositum, et latas nomen seruare plateas : Tum respondentes directa in compita portas, quadrangle extended nearly from E. to W. The gates Per mediumque urbis fontani tluminis alueum: appear to have been fourteen in number: four on the north, Quem pater Oceanus refluo cum impleuerit æstu, Adiabi totum spectabis classibus æquor. and as many on the south side, and three each on the Claræ Urbes, xiv. B. eastern and western sides. La Porte Basse, the last of the gates, was demolished about twenty or five and twenty years I have long heen condemning my impious silence, in not since. Of the walls and towers some remains it is probable mentioning among the chief [cities], thee, O my country, exist still. The stones used in the foundations of tne wall renowned for wine, and streams, and men ; for the manners were of a great size. Two Roman edifices survived the and talents of thy inhabitants, and [thy] council of the various devastations of the city, and came down to modern nobles :—as though conscious of the small (extent of my native) city, I hesitated to touch upon unmerited praises. the poet to refer to the hills on the opposite bank. • As the country on the west side of the Garonne is flat, we must suppose No shame do I feel for this reason. Not mine the bar- + The tide flows up the Garonne considerably above Bordeaux. barous bank of the Rhenus, nor is my icy dwelling in the channel chow covered over) no vestiges remain, See Elias VinetusCuare northern Hæmus. Burdigala is my birth-place, where the mentary on Ausonium Page 9
The difficulty of erecting the bridge was increased by the Margaux, Lafitte, Latour, and Haut Brion, are from the depth of the river, which in one part is twenty-six feet at district of Médoc on the left bank of the river Garonne low water, with a rising tide of twelve to eighteen feet, by below the city. Bordeaux imports cotton, indigo, tobacco, the rapidity of the current, which is often ten feet in a sugar, coffee, cocoa, and other articles, from the French second, and by the shifting and sandy bottom. West Indian colonies; tin, lead, copper, coal, hardwares, Of the ecclesiastical edifices of Bordeaux the cathedral is timber for ship building, masts, hemp, hides, horns, salt the most worthy of notice. It is an antient Gothic edifice, beef, and salted salmon from England; Holland, Northern not far from the old castle of Ha. Like some of the other Europe, and America. Many vessels are built, and many finest monuments of this kind of architecture in France, it hundred workmen employed in the vast building yards owes its origin to the English, though a church stood upon which extend along the Garonne. There are at Bordeaux the same spot prior to their domination. It is irregular in two large fairs, one of which opens on the 1st of March, its architecture, owing to the various dates at which it the other on the 15th of October. (Malte Brun; Balbi; was built or repaired, but it commands admiration by the | Dictionnaire Geographique, par Robert; Macculloch's Dic boldness of its arched roof and flying buttresses, the num. tiorúry of Commerce, &c.) ber and elegance of its spires and the richness of its orna- The shipping belonging to the port of Bordeaux amounted ments, especially its altar. The nave is about 85 English in 1833 to 78,915 tons; in 1831 it was as much as 98,737 feet high, 53 wide, and 193 long from the end of the church tons, including 15 steam-vessels of the aggregate burthen to the intersection of the transepts. (M. Millin.) The whole of about 3000 tons. The number and tonnage of vessels length of the church is about 413 feet. It is adorned with that entered the port, exclusive of coasting vessels, in each painted windows, sculptures, and bas-reliefs, and is dedicated of the three years ending with 1832, were as follows:to St. André, or Andrew. The front is adorned with two spires upwards of 150 feet high; they were restored in 1810 after having become much dilapidated. Near the cathedral Ships.1 Tons. Iships. Tons. Iships.) Tons. is a tower built by one of the archbishops (Pierre) in 1440, and commonly called St. Pey-Berland. The staircase by French Vessels 30,127 146 27,226 27,072 which it is ascended has 200 steps. It is now used as a Trade with French Colonies 25,373 103 24,722 17,744 shot tower. The church of St. Michel, built by the English Fishing Trade 7,337 6,536 in the twelfth century, is a specimen of purer and more Foreign Vesse) regular Gothic architecture than the cathedral. Its tower, From Countries whose Nay}| 217 37,189 83 12,113 251 36,648 built separate from the church in the fifteenth century, From other Foreign Coun- 12,062 after the expulsion of the English, once remarkable for its height, has suffered much from the weather. The 111,437 597 77,566 716 100,062 church of the Feuillans is only remarkable as the burialplace of Montaigne. Eleven Catholic and three Pro- The coasting trade during the same three years to and testant churches are mentioned in Reichard's Descriptive from the town of Bordeaux wasRoad-Book of France, and there is a magnificent Šews' synagogue, built in the time of Napoleon. Bordeaux had an abbey, that of Ste. Croix of the Bene Ships. Tons. SIPS Tons. Ships. dictine order, which was held in commendam when Ex 128,426 2341 108,370 2352 125,286 pilly wrote, in 1762. There were also before the Revolution : : 91,2372479 126,800 ihree seminaries for the education of the priesthood, a rich commandery of the order of Malta, and sev ral religious Very few of the vessels belonging to Bordeaux are enhouses both for men and women. The Chartreuse or mo- gaged in the cod fishery, and only two ships are employed nastery of the Carthusians in the suburb of St. Seurin was in the whale fishery. Between one-fourth and one-third of very magnificent. The church formerly attached to it is richly the French colonial trade is carried on by the merchants of decorated. The vineyard of this Chartreuse is now converted Bordeaux. into a public cemetery, like that of Père la Chaise at Paris. The quantities of wine and brandy exported from the As a place of trade Bordeaux is eminent. Its commerce Gironde in the same years werein the early part of the eighteenth century was very con Brandy. siderable, and Martinière (Grand Dictionnaire) enume- 1829 imperial gallons 9,643,053 2,013,795 rates among the articles of trade dried plums, resin, vinegar, 1830 6,281,412 687,361 and especially wine, of which in time of peace 100,000 casks 1831 5,370,110 655,193 were exported annually. This wine was the produce not About a twentieth part of the wine and a tenth part of only of the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, but also of Langue- the brandy were sent to this kingdom. doc and the district of Montauban. The opening of the The population of Bordeaux in 1832 was 100,262 for the great Canal du Midi, which united the Garonne with the city, or 109,467 for the whole commune. The population Mediterranean, tended much to promote the trade of this of the town in 1810 was 93,699, and in 1820, 89,202. The place. It enables the Bordelois to supply the south of patois of the country is spoken by the Jews, by the uneduFrance with colonial produce almost as cheap as the Mar- cated classes, and the population of the outskirts; the other seillois. The loss of St. Domingo was injurious to Bor- inhabitants speak French. deaux, with which that colony had many important con- This city has numerous establishments for education and nexions, and to which much of its produce was consigned. the promotion of science. It has an Academie UniversiBut of late years this injury has been more than repaired taire and a Collège Royal, or high school; schools of archiby the increase of manufacturing industry, especially in tecture, hydrography, and navigation; botany and natural articles of perfumery, in the distillation of various liqueurs, I history; drawing and painting; medicine and surgery. There &c., in weaving stockings, carpets, and cottons, and the is a school for the deaf and dumb, founded in 1785. When making of earthenware, porcelain, Lottles, casks, hats, paper, Mr. Milford visited this institution in 1814 it contained 100 vinegar, and nitric acid. Among the liqueurs prepared persons, chiefly young; the establishment was in high rehere, the aniseed is much celebrated. There is a royal pute. There are several learned societies, as the Academie snuff manufactory near the castle of Ha, in which 500 per Royale des Sciences, Arts, et Belles Lettres; La Societé sons are constantly employed, many refining houses for Royale de Médicine ; La Societé Medico-Chirurgicale, &c. sugar, some iron foundries, and ropewalks. These manu- The public library contains 110,000 volumes, among which factures furnish articles for exportation, especially to the is a copy of Montaigne's Essays, with the author's marginal French colonies. Cattle, hides, provisions, flour, clover seed, corrections. The botanic garden is maintained by the governbrandly, almonds, prunes, chestnuts, walnuts, cork, turpen- ment for the purpose of naturalizing exotic plants, of which, tine, resin, tartar, cream of tartar, verdigris, linens, and co- as well as of indigenous plants, it contains a good variety, .onial produce are shipped to various parts of Europe, to There are museum of antiquities and a gallery of pictures, the French colonies, to America, or to India. Wine is which occupy several rooms in one of the wings of the royal nowever the staple export of Bordeaux, which is the prin- palace; and a cabinet of natural history, which is well kept cipal outlet for tlie wines of the western districts of France, up, in the hôtel of the Academie Royale. In the museum and even of the southern and midland districts. Claret is of antiquities are the inscriptions and bas-reliefs dug up in chiefly shipped at Bordeaux, and is the produce of the the city and its environs. There is an observatory. (Balbi: De ghbouring country. The first growths, those of Château Malte Brun, &c.) Page 10
Borgo San Sepolcro, a town of the province of Arezzo in nence. He was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona, but rather Tuscany, in the valley of the upper Tiber, and close upon modelled himself after the style of Carlo Maratta. the frontiers of the papal state. It originated in the BORING. (CANNON, GUN, MINING, ARTESIAN WELLS, tenth century with two pilgrims, who having been to Pa and other operations of which boring forms a part.] lestine brought back a piece of the stone of the Holy Se- BORKUM, an island about 14 m. in circumference, pulchre, and built a hermitage on this spot. The fame of situated in the North Sea about 18 m. from the coast of Their sanctity attracted many people, and a number of houses East Friesland, and off the mouth of the Ems, is com were built, to which the name of Borgo San Sepolcro was prehended in the circle or bailiwick of Pensum, wbicn given. The town was enclosed by walls, and, after long forms part of the Hanoverian province of Aurich. The retaining its municipal independence, submitted in the six- middle of the island lies so much below the level of the teenth century to Cosmo I., grand duke of Tuscany. It is sea, that the water at high tide flows through the island a bishop's see, and has several churches, besides the and divides it into two parts. Borkum is a parish, with a cathedral, with good paintings, and a seminary for clerical village and church, and about 500 inhabitants, who derive students. their subsistence from husbandry, cultivating vegetables There are other towns in Italy called Borgo, such as and fruit, rearing cattle, fishing, and serving on board Borgo San Dalmazio near Cuneo in Piedmont, 3000 inhabit- of Dutch and Hamburg whalers. The light house on ants ; Borgo Sesia in the province of Valsesia, with 2500 ; | the island, which is built of stone and provided with pumps Borgo Vercelli in the province of Novara, with 2000; Borgo and parabolic reflectors, is about 150 ft . high, and serves d'Ales in the province of Vercelli, with 2400; Borgomanero as a landmark both by day and night for ships navigating in the province of Novara, with 6000. these seas or making for the Ems; it is in 53° 35' N. There are also several places called Borghetto, 'small lat., and 60° 38' E. long. Borgo,' in the papal state. BORLASE, WILLIAM, was born at Pendeen, in the BORGOGNONE, JA'COPO CORTE'SI, called from parish of St. Just in Cornwall, Feb. 2nd, 1695-6, where his his place of birth Borgognone, was born in 1621 in the city family had been settled from the reign of King William of St. Hippolite, in Burgundy (Ital. Borgogna). His father, Rufus. He was the second son of John Borlase. Esq. of Giovanni Cortesi, was a painter of sacred subjects, and very Pendeen : he was placed early at school at Penzance, successful in his way. Owing to an accidental temptation, where his master used to say he could learn, but did not;' Jacopo went into the army for three years; after which he and was thence removed in 1709. to Plymouth under the returned to his art, and studied at Bologna, where Guido, care of the Rev. Mr. Bedford, at that time a master of then at the height of his fame, was residing. Guido, hap- eminence; he was entered of Exeter College, Oxford, in pening to see a picture of his in a window, inquired into his March 1712-13, where he took his bachelor's and master's circumstances, and took him home with him ; which, during degrees. He was admitted into deacon's orders in 1719, the remaining six months that he stayed in Bologna, afforded and was ordained priest in 1720. In 1722 he was instituted him a fine opportunity of improving his colouring. Here by Dr. Weston, bishop of Exeter, to the rectory of Ludgvan he occasionally saw Albano, from whom, among other things, in Cornwall, on the presentation of Charles duke of Bolton ; he learned this maxim, “That a painter, before setting to was married in 1724 to Anne, eldest surviving daughter and work upon any subject, should recal to mind something which coheir of the Rev. William Smith, rector of the parishes of he had seen in reality: a saying which Jacopo kept con- Camborn and Illuggan; and in 1732 presented by Lord stantly in view. Baldinucci, haring invited him to his house Chancellor King to the vicarage of St. Just, his native many years after to see some of his own pictures, which he parishi, where his father had considerable property. This had purchased, asked him in a burst of admiration, “How vicarage and the rectory of Ludgvan were the only preferhe had given his battles so much truth, with expression so ments he ever received. just, and accidents so various ?'—he replied, that all he had At Ludgvan, a retired but delightful situation, Mr. Borpainted he had really seen. lase soon recommended himself as a clergyman, a gentleBorgognone subsequently realized a handsome independ- man, and a man of learning. His mind being of an inence, and visited his native country for three years, but re- quisitive turn, he could not survey with indifference the turned to Italy, and painted for a considerable time in peculiar objects which surrounded him. The parish of Florence with great reputation. In 1655 he conceived Ludgvan contained rich copper-works, abounding, with himself under a call to renounce the vanities of the mineral fossils, which Mr. Borlase collected from time to world, and accordingly betook himself to Rome, where he time; and his collection increasing by degrees, he was enbegged to be admitted into the order of Jesus, and was re- couraged to study the natural history of his native county. ceived as a novice. His feelings were doubtless inodified by While engaged in this design he could not avoid being early association and the kindness he had met with from struck with the numerous monuments of remote antiquity religious orders. During his noviciate he painted, at the in several parts of_Cornwall, which had till then been sugger (in of his fellow-monks, pictures of sacred subjects, nearly neglected. Enlarging his plan, he determined to but could not keep entirely from such as suited his peculiar gain as accurate an acquaintance as possible with the relistyle. In such esteem was he held by the community to gion and customs of the antient Britons, to which he was which he belonged, that the second year of noviciate was encouraged by several gentlemen of his neighbourhood, who dispensed with ; and he never gave his order reason to re- were lovers of British antiquities, particularly by Sir John pent of their confidence. His religious profession however | St. Aubyn and the Rev. Edward Collins, vicar of Garth. did not make him idle, and he worked as vigorously as ever. His friendship and correspondence also with Dr. Lyttelton, He died of apoplexy, November 14th, 1676. then dean of Exeter, and afterwards bishop of Carlisle, and As he painted with great facility and rapidity, his pictures with Dr. Milles, who succeeded Dr. Lyttelton both as dean are very numerous. His execution was in dashing strokes, of Exeter and president of the Society of Antiquaries, were the colour laid on thick, and better suited therefore to a distant | a further stimulus to the prosecution of his studies. than a close view, a manner which has been ascribed to his In 1750, being at London, he was admitted a fellow or living with Guido, and to his seeing the works of Paolo the Royal Society, into which he had been chosen the year Veronese when at Venice; but partly ascribable perhaps before, after having communicated a paper on the nature and to his habit of sketching before he was thoroughly practised properties of spar and sparry productions, particularly on the in the art. spars or crystals found in the Cornish mines, printed in the His pictures have excellencies corresponding to the pecu- Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlvi. p. 250. His next liarity of his style. If, says one of his biographers, “they Memoir was an account of the great alterations which the do not convey sounds, they express with horror to the mind Islands of Scilly have undergone since the time of the the cries of the buffeting soldiers, the shrieks of the wounded, antients who mention them, as to their number, extent, the lamentations of the death-stricken, the thunders of the and position. Phil. Trans. vol. xlviii. p. 55. Various other bombarding, the bursting of mines,' and truly there is a communications from him, some relating to the antiquities, freedom of design, a force and suddenness in the action, a some to the natural history of his native county, are in unity of composition, with a most natural variety in the ac- volumes xlviii. p. 86 ; xlix. 373; 1 51, 499; li. 13; lii. 418, cidents, which seem to show the gallery-visiter a real battle- 507 ; liii. 27; liv. 59 ; lvi. 35; lvii. 89; lix. 47; Ix. 230; field. lxi. 195; Ixii. 365 ; between the years 1752 and 1771. Jacopo had a brother, Guglielmo Cortesi, also called The Antiquities of Cornwall were published at Oxford in Borgognone, a painter of merit, who sometimes assisted his February, 1753, under the title of "Observations on the bro her in his paintings, but he never attaired the same emi- Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of No. 295. (THE PENNY CYCLOPÆDIA.) Vol. V,...' B Page 11
BORNEO, the capital of the kingdom of Borneo Proper, spots with drifting sand. Bornholm is watered by a num. or Brunai, is situated on the north-western coast of the ber of rivulets, possesses some excellent springs, and has Island of Borneo, 4° 56' N. lat. and 114° 44' E. long., on several sheets of water. Every spot is diligently cultivated. the banks of a river, about ten miles from the sea. The The climate is colder but drier than that of the adjacent mouth of the river is narrow, with a bar in front of it, on islands, and it is accounted very healthy. The agricultural which there are scarcely 17 feet of water at high tides. produce of the island is principally oats, rye, barley, pease, Farther P the river has a considerable depth, on an average and some small quantities of tlax, hemp, hops, and potatoes. six fathoms, and here the shipping lies, particularly the The cattle are small but of good quality, and the wool is of Chinese junks, which are moored head and stern. The a finer and better description than that from the neighbourtown, which is on low ground on both sides of the river, ing islands; the stock in hand is estimated at 9000 horses, contains a considerable number of houses, built on posts 20,000 oxen and cows, and 25,000 sheep. Bees are every four or five feet high, which, at the rise of the tides, allow where reared ; poultry, particularly ducks and geese, is the water freely to pass under them. The streets are formed abundant, and marine fowl are plentiful, but game is by canals, either natural or artificial, which facilitate com- scanty. The coast abounds with fish, mostly salmon, had. munication, and they are always covered with boats, which docks, and small-sized herrings. Bornholm is rich in are managed by women with great dexterity. mineral productions; coal is partially raised for domestic Borneo is a place of considerable trade. Its commerce use ; quarries of sandstone and millstones are worked; was principally limited to its intercourse with China, the and there is also marble, slate, and potter's-earth. Philippines, and the Sooloo Islands, the countries on the The inhabitants of Bornholm, about 20,000 in number peninsula of Malacca not being much frequented by the (in 1801 18,902), are wholly of Danish extraction ; they are Borneo navigators. But since the foundation of Singapore, a remarkably industrious race, quick in temperament, enthe Bugis merchants of Borneo often visit that port. The terprising, and sober, and make good sailors, though rough exports are rice, black pepper, camphor, cinnamon bees'- and somewhat perverse. They speak a peculiar dialect wax, sea-slugs, turtle-shell, pearls, and mother-of-pearl, of the Danish mixed with German words; and are expert with tea, wrought and raw silk, and nankeen, the three in the manufacture of woollens, pottery, and clocks and last articles being imported from China. At Singapore they watches, the last mentioned being made in the towns. take in exchange cottons and woollens, opium, iron, arms, General comfort prevails throughout Bornholm ; the and ammunition. This port is rarely visited by European farmers are the owners of the lands they cultivate. It is vessels, but many Chinese junks come from Amoy and the custom of the island for the lands to descend to the Ningpo. The Chinese find it advantageous to build their youngest son, but, on the failure of male issue, the eldest junks here, for though the island has no teak, it produces daughter, not the youngest, inherits them. Among other other kinds of good ship-timber, among which is the privileges which thc Bornholmers enjoy are those of paycamphor-tree. (Dr. Leyden's description of Borneo in the ing only half the taxes imposed on their fellow subjects, Asiatic Journal.) and providing for the defence of the island out of their BORNHEM, a town and commune in the province of own resources. The military force, which is confined to Antwerp, about 12 m. W. from Mechlin, and 10 m. S.W. natives, and cannot be removed out of the island, is comof Antwerp. The commune is bounded on the N. and the posed of two coinpanies of artillery, four squadrons of W. by the Scheldt, which separates it from East Flanders. dragoons, four companies of regular infantry, a company The town contains 594 houses and 4043 inhabitants, among of riflemen, and eleven companies of civic and provincial whom, in 1829, occurred 121 birtlıs, 104 deaths, and 27 militia. marriages. Bornhem supports a communal school, in which Bornholm is divided into four districts or “hardes,' the 203 boys and 103 girls were taught in 1833. northern, western, southern, and eastern, and contains The principal trade of the place is in corn, flax, and linen twenty-one parishes, five towns, two hamlets, and 948 farming clothi, considerable quantities of which are made there. In establishments ; the last stand wholly isolated, nor are there cutting a sluice, in 1781, a great number of Roman bronze any regular villages throughout the island. Though there medals were found, thirty feet below the surface, and seven is but one public school, most of the inhabitants are able to or eight feet below the level of the Scheldt. These medals read and write. were of the emperors Commodus and Caracalla. In very remote ages Bornliolm belonged to Denmark, but The river Rupel having, in February, 1825, forced down in the sixteenth century it was made over to the citizens the dyke of the polder of Eykenbroek, a great part of the of Lübeck for fifty years. In 1645 it was captured by the commune of Bornhem was overflowed, so that nearly all the Swedes, who retained possession of it by the subsequent inhabitants were obliged to abandon their houses, and were treaty of Roeskild; in 1658 however the inhabitants rose unable to return to them for two months. (Dict. Géog. de against their new masters, under the conduct of Jens la Prov. d'Anvers, par Van der Maelen.) Korfoed, and having declared their island an heir-loom of BORNHOLM, an island and bailiwick attached to the the crown of Denmark, it has ever since maintained its Danish_province of Seeland, is situated in the Baltic, allegiance to it. 90 m. E. of the island of Seeland, about 40 m. E. by S. The chief town of Bornholm lies on a high flat on the of Ystad on the coast of Sweden, and about 50 from the W. coast, and is called Rönne, Rönnedy, or Rottum. It is N.E. shores of the Prussian island of Rügen. It is about an open place, irregularly built, and has a singular ap32 m. in length from N. to S., and varies from 9 to 12 in pearance in consequence of the walls of the houses being breadth, except at the N, extremity; inclusive of three whitewashed, and the woodwork being smeared with tar. islets, it contains an area of about 216 sq. m. Born- The castle, now reduced to an old tower, is all that is left holm presents features the very reverse of those which of the fortifications raised in the times of Christian V. ; they characterise the other Danish islands, for it is not only have been superseded by batteries of modern construction. a complete rock, but mountainous in the interior, parti- There are a large market-place in the town, a church, cularly towards the N.; and it is so walled in by pre- grammar-school, town hall, arsenal, and hospital, seventy cipitous cliffs and dangerous reess that, at certain seasons streets, nearly 600 houses, and about 2800 inhabitants, who of the year, the approach to it is extremely hazardous. subsist by traffic in grain, making clocks and watches and The whole channel between the island and the coast pottery-ware, and upon the produce of their fisheries, their of Pomerania is dangerous to vessels that draw much trade with the interior and foreign parts, and their navigawater, arising mainly from the shifting sand-bank called tion. The harbour is small, and varies in depth from 6 to the • Dueodde or Pigeon's Point. A high range which 9 ft. the first mentioned being the more general depth; stretches across Bornholm from N. to S., called the Almin- but it affords a safe anchorage against most winds. It is dingen, contains the · Rytterknecht,' or Knight's fol- the seat of government, and the residence of the high lower, the most elevated point in the island, about 500 ft. bailiff or Amtsman, and of the military commandant; in height. The Almindingen does not form a continuous 55° 6' N. lat., and 14° 40' E, long. The next town of imelevation, but is intersected by fertile valleys lined with portance is Nexöe, on the S.E. coast; it is situated upon an underwoods of oak. There is also a spacious moor, 'the elevated mass of rocks, possesses a good harbour and roadLyngmark,' in the interior, on which nothing will grow sted, a church, charity-school, hospital, and public storebut low juniper and other wild shrubs, with some coarse house. The pop. is about 1700. In the vicinity there are grass; the inhabitants however use it as common pasture quarries of sandstone and millstones, worked by the goground. The remainder of the island has a stony soil, par- vernment. The other towns are Aakirkebye, in the intially intermingled with tracts of deep loam, and on three terior, which is the seat of justice for the island, and has a handsome black marble church, the finest in Bornholm, 60°. The prevailing winds in this season blow from the a hospital and public store, and about 460 inhabitants; N. & N.W. Hasle, on the W. coast, with an indifferent harbour and The only implement of agriculture is an ill shaped hoe, about 500 inhab. Svanike, on the eastern coast, lying in a made from the iron found in the Mandara Mountains. All small bight which forms an insignificant harbour with bad the labours of the field devolve almost entirely on women. anchorage, has a church, hospital, charity-school, and store- The most valuable products are maize, cotton, and indigo, house, and about 670 inhab.; and Sandvig, on the N.E. of which the two last grow wild close to the Tchad and in the point of the island, a town which does not contain more than overtlowed grounds. The indigo is of a superior quality, and 50 houses, and about 200 inhab. Maltgvarn is said to con- the dark-blue colour of their tobes, or large shirts (the only tain 1400 pop. The three small islands or rocks of Christian- dress the people wear), is probably not excelled in any part söe, Fredericks-holm, and Gräsholmen, are about 17 m. E. of of the world. The senna plant is also found wild. Rice is the N. point of Bornholm, and belong to the larger island. not much cultivated, and what is raised is of inferior quality; Christiansöe and Fredericks-holm are inhabited and forti- considerable quantities are imported from Soudan.' Very fied, and on Christiansöe theit is a lighthouse. The fisheries little wheat is grown, and barley is not abundant. The grain and the taking of sea-fowl are very productive. The pop., most used as food for men and animals is a species of millet including the garrison, is about 500. Page 12
. Reserving in his own immediate possession ‘the Norman king, but they found means of appealing to his ion's share,' that is to say, all the larger cities and boroughs, cupidity. He discovered that their eager desire to rid them. and about fifteen hundred manors, he distributed the re- selves of the great scourge and curse of their community, mainder of the lands and towns among about seven hun- the royal bailiff , urged them to offer him a higher sum to dred tenants-in-chief, that is, possessors on the feudal con- be collected from and by themselves, and transmitted didition of military service rendered immediately to himself. rectly to his exchequer, than he could farm their town for In making this distribution, regard was no doubt paid to to an individual ; and that their dread of the return of such the military rank and amount of service of the Norman a scourge would keep them punctual in their payments ;claimant, as also to his length of possession previously to that, in short, he could make no better bargain than to farm the digesting of the great register of the conquest ; but it their town to themselves instead of a bailiff;—and hence was from the individual will of the conqueror, as now re- the frequent charters which we soon find issuing to one corded, that the claim of each proprietor thenceforward borough after another, granting it to the burgesses in fee. derived its sanction ; and from this period must be dated farm, that is, in permanent possession so long as they should the legal maxim in England, that all landed property is punctually pay the stipulated crown-rent. derived originally from royal grant. The greater tenants- The interference of a royal provost in their interna' cona in-chief, in like manner, retaining portions for their imme- cerns being thus withdrawn, the towns returned naturally diate use, subdivided their domains among the higher grade to their former free municipal organization. They had oncs of their military followers, and these again among the rank more a chief administrator of their own choice; though in beneath them; so that the whole territory was parcelled out, few cases was he allowed to resume either of the old designaon this regular system of military organization, into about tions, borough-reve and port-reve. In all cases he now sixty thousand knights' fees, as they were called; each acted as bailif of the Norman king; accounted at the knight's fee being a portion estimated sufficient to furnish, exchequer for the farm or crown-rent of the borough: in when requisite, a man and horse completely armed for war- most, he received the Norman appellation of mayor, which, aike expedition. denoting in that language a municipal chief officer, wa less But every title to property, by inheritance or otherwise, odious to the Saxon townsmen than that of bailiff; though derived from a date anterior to the Norman invasion, was in some, he received and kept the title of bailiff only. now declared null and void. Very few Anglo-Saxon names Still, so long as the burgher communities remained wholly were admitted on the list of William's immediate or second- excluded from political existence, and their newly-recovered ary feudatories; and thus, against the great body of Anglo- municipal freedom depended on the personal good faith of Saxon freeholders in the country and in the towns, the doom the monarch, who to them was an absolute despot, it was of final expropriation was pronounced. With the loss of all subject to frequent infringement on the part of the conproperty in the soil, the conquered people, forming the vast queror's successors, according as they were prompted either majority of William's subjects in England, fell into civil and by caprice or by the pecuniary necessities attendant on the political nullity. The Domesday- book itself shows us, that contests in which they became involved with powerful parties the very guildhalls of their municipal towns were given of that military aristocracy, between whom and themselves away, like everything else, in the division of the spoil. The all political power was shared. Hence the frequent forhighest condition of the English in the rural districts was feitures of this species of charters at this period; and in now that of the humble farmer and the rustic artisan, many instances, the repeated re-granting, on payment of a whom their Norman masters called villains; and in the fine, of the same liberties to the same town. London itself, municipal towns, the townsman, or resident householder, though by reason of its primary importance, it was, from -according to the Normans, the burgess,-no longer a political expediency, the most favoured of all the English freeholder, was placed on precisely the same social level municipalities, yet was not exempt from extortion by these as the villain—that of men not indeed personally enslaved, arbitrary stretches of power. Hence the active part which, like the serfs or bondnien, but wholly excluded from political with other large towns, it took with the barons in procuring rights, and therefore subject, according to the feudal max- and enforcing that solemn settlement of the limits of the ims of the Normans, besides the rent of their individual royal prerogative, which was embodied in the Great Charter,' holdings, and besides the rigorous payment of the rents and wherein it is distinctly expressed, that all cities, boroughs, services due by the old English custom, in the nature of and ports*, shall have their liberties and free customs, contributions to the general exigencies of the state, to the established formula which denoted the restoration, by arbitrary taxation by the crown, in the shape of occasional charter, of their old municipal freedom. levies, called by the Normans taillages or tallages. The formation of this instrument, however, in which the Under the Anglo-Saxon government, the revenue of the leading portion of the burgess population concurred, marks king, or rather of the state, had been collected in each shire one stage in the progress of Anglo-Norman society from by the shire-reve, and in each municipal town by the that dismal period when a broad and impassable line of disborough-reve or port-reve. But in the one case, as in the tinction separated, throughout the land, the conquered from other, this officer was the elective head of the municipality; the conquerors, the Saxon from the Norman. In a century for the shire itself was no other than a certain extent of and more which had elapsed since the Anglo-Saxon people territory municipally organized. But now, instead of the had finally sunk into prostration and despair, the sullen elective Saxon reve, there was placed over each shire a hatred on the one hand and the fierce contempt on the Norman viscount, and over each municipal town a bailiff, other, had of necessity much abated; and this progress had both appointed by the Norman king. How intolerable such been accelerated by the violent dissensions between the a yoke as this must have been to the members of each once crown and the baronage, and the necessity in which the free community it is easy to conceive; when, in lieu of a latter found themselves of courting the aid, both personal local executive and magisterial officer of their own choice, and pecuniary, of the municipal communities, then strugnot only their countryman, but their fellow-townsman, they gling into renewed freedom and activity, against the fresh were placed under a petty agent of foreign extortion, alien bands of military foreigners whom their kings were conto them in race, in language, and in feeling, regardless stantly bringing in to coerce them, and to whom they were of their interests, and insolent by virtue of his imme- constantly threatening to transfer their seigniories. Thus diate delegation from the conqueror or the conqueror's was the first tendency to political co-operation established heir. When, also, we take into account the practice con- between the landed proprietary deriving from the conquest, stantly resorted to by the first Norman kings, of farm- and the trading population aspiring to regain a recognized ing these bailiwicks to the highest bidder, we may political existence; and this tendency we shall find rapidly well cease to be amazed at the sickening pictures exhibited increasing. to us by the contemporary chroniclers of cruel and reck These two distinctions, among the municipal bawas generally, of citiet less extortion perpetrated upon the unfortunate townsmen of and cinque-ports, the former merely nominal, the latter implying actual peu England in thnje reigns. The vitality of coumercial indus- ! liarity of privileges, were introduced by the Normans. Page 13
erecting close boroughs, but to make a second and a bolder , extort from him the act which prevented their being dissolved advance in the same direction, by attacking the constitutions without their own consent-the distrust which eventually of the prescriptively parliamentary municipalities themselves. arose between the people and that House of Commons which Already, in Michaelmas term, 40th and 41st of Elizabeth, so long continued in self-constituted permanency--and its the judges had given a remarkable decision, extremely fa- final dissolution by force, to make way for the arbitrary mo vourable to the prosecution of this object. Attempts appear difications introduced by a military dictator-forms rather to have been then making in several of the boroughs to an episode in parliamentary history than a link in the chain have popular elections of the principal officers, in opposition of that history itself. The endeavours of the Protector to to a custom which had grown up of leaving the elections in mould a House of Commons which should both second his the hands of the common councils. It was now, therefore, political views and possess the confidence of the people desired to be known whether such elections were legal, in proved abortive ; although, by omitting the more inconsiopposition to the words of a charter vesting the elections derable boroughs, proportioning the representation of the indefinitely in the commonalty. It was on application by others to the population of the several places, and increasing the Privy Council, that the two chief justices, the chief that of the counties, he seems to have made a show at least baron, and the other judges, determined that such custom of seeking to place the general representation on a basis was good, because the several boroughs had power to make more accordant with the relative numbers and importance of bye-laws; and that where no bye-law making such regu- the several constituencies. lation was to be found, it might nevertheless be presumed • A free parliament' was as much the national watchword that such bye-law had existed, because such custom must in 1660 as it had been in 1640; and Charles II.'s herehave originated in common consent. And thus it was judi- ditary claim would have availed him little without that par cially decided, not only that elections of municipal officers liament's declaration of it. by select common councils were legal, but that where such The thirteenth year of this reign is memorable for the custom had grown up, the community at large were for ever enactment of the statute, commonly known as the Corpoexcluded from such elections. ration Act, which so long operated to the exclusion both of The incongruities involved in this decision, and the disre- Roman Catholics and of Dissenters from all corporate offices. gard of all constitutional principle, are very notable. That It provides that‘no person or persons shall be placed, elected, the plenitude of royal prerogative established at the Con- or chosen, in or to any of the offices of mayor, aldermen, request should have excluded, for ages before, all appeal to corders, bailiffs, town-clerks, common-councilmen, or other the inherent right of freemen to a voice in the appointment offices of magistracy, or place or trust, or other employment of those who were to have the direction of their common relating to or concerning the government of any city, coraffairs, is perfectly intelligible. That on the royal charter, poration, borough, cinque port, or any of their members, or and that alone, they constantly rested their title to such other port-town, within England, Wales, and Berwick-uponpower of internal organization as they claimed to exer- Tweed, that shall not have, one year before such election or cise, is sufficiently manifest. Here the burgesses and choice, taken the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper according the royal judges should seem to have been meeting on com- to the rites of the Church of England. But this legislative mon ground. The burgesses simply appealed against a measure, which was dictated by the public opinion of the vicious custom of later growth to the superior and anterior time, and so long operated to the exclusion of Roman Cathoauthority of their charter. The judges, instead of vindi- lics as well as Dissenters from all municipal offices, was not cating that autbority, as it should have been the primary at all conducive to the views of the Court. After lavishing interest of the prerogative to do, asserted-first, that the every means at its disposal for the management of the power of making bye-laws, given by the charter, empowered House of Commons by the dispensing of bribes and pensions the community to make a law contravening an express pro- to individual members that Court, ever prodigal and ever vision of the same charter ; secondly, that there was a par- needy, meditated at once a cheaper and more permanently ticular kind of bye-law, which, though the community had effective process of ensuring parliamentary subserviency, by power to enact, they had no power to repeal: and thirdly, pushing to its furthest limit the old policy of remodelling that in a certain case, the existence of an erpress law was municipal corporations. Even this was felt to be a bold to be presumed from a usage commencing within time of attempt ; but it was deemed less hazardous than the enmemory. This transaction, therefore, presents a most curious deavour to reign without a parliament, in which Charles I. example of the compromising, by the crown itself, of the had failed. very principles on which the stability of the prerogative As the proceedings now adopted against such of the gomost firmly rested, in the eager pursuit of its immediato erning charters of cities and boroughs as still sanctioned a policy to popular municipal constitution, was a general filing of The judicial authority being thus once brought into play what are technically termed informations in the nature of to decide, for the crown's own immediate convenience, upon quo warranto, from the prominence of those words in the the extent and durability of its powers in the granting of old Latin formula of the instrument itself, it is necessary municipal charters, was kept in active operation throughout that we should briefly explain the origin and use of that the Stuart reigns. In the twelfth year of James I. it form of proceeding on the part of the legal advisers and proceeded so far as to declare that the king could, by his officers of the crown. charter, incorporate the people of a town in the form of select Although many of the antient boroughs received their classes and commonalty, and vest in the whole corporation first Anglo-Norman charters of liberty from the successors the right of sending representatives to parliament, at the of those military leaders who had received from the Consame time restraining the exercise of that right to the queror the largest shares of the national spoil, yet the select classes; and such was thenceforward the form of all general relaxation of the feudal bonds at the same time the corporations which royal charters created or remodelled. that the relations of the boroughs with the crown became Atter this fashion it was that, under James I. and Charles more determinate and regular, brought nearly all of them, I., seventeen more parliamentary boroughs were revived ; at an early period, into immediate dependence, as the deand that James created four, making a total addition to the mesne boroughs were from the first, upon the validity of borough representation of forty-one members, besides the royau charters for the maintenance of their most important four members for the two English universities, which James privileges. When some degree of regularity arose out of first introduced. the judicial chaos necessarily introduced by such a conThat all these arts combined were insufficient to counter- quest, the justices itinerant were empowered by the crown act in the representative house the popular spirit, and the to inquire, in their circuit, by what warrant all who spread of political knowledge consequent on the diffusion of claimed any franchise in derogation of the crown, from printing, so far as to render that assembly thoroughly sub- which all local liberties were assumed to emanate, main servient to the views of the Court at that period, is a fact too tained their title. In the 18th year of Edward I., who notorious to be here enlarged upon. Charles I. attempted, laboured strenuously in various ways to infuse er and and persevered in attempting, that which even Edward I. permanence into the internal administration of the realm, had found it expedient solemnly to forego--the levying of we find the following statute, the terms of which seem general taxes without consent of the Commons in par- directed to an object quite contrary to that which in the liament. This was the true commencement of the struggle. use of the proceeding in question the crown so eagerly purThe narrative of the consequent events ----of the necessity sued at a later period.- Concerning the writ that is called which drove him once more to have recourse to parliament- quo warrunto, our lord the king, at the feast of Pentccost, the necessity, not less urgent, which drove the Commons to in the eighteenth year of nis reign, hath established, that all those who claim to have quiet possession of any franchise with bis management might have subverted the constitubefore the time of King Richard, without interruption, and tion. This system soon fell after it came under the can show the same by a lawful inquest, shall well enjoy management of a successor, against whom the whole natheir possession; and in case that possession be demanded tion was exasperated. The first and only parliament of for cause reasonable, our lord the king shall confirm it by James II. displayed the full intiuence of his brother's meatitle. And those that have old charters of privileges shall sures,—the effect of laying corporations under the control have the said charters adjudged according to the tenor and of the crown and vesting the election of their magistrates form of them; and those that have lost their liberties since in the select classes ; a parliament convened ready to forge Easter last past by the aforesaid writ, according to the chains for themselves and the nation,-a parliament whose course of pleading in the same writ heretofore used, shall servility needed only a little duplicity in the king to render have restitution of their franchise lost, and from henceforth him the most arbitrary sovereign in Europe.' This prince, they shall have according to the nature of this present con- after having tried in vain to avail himself of his brother's stitution. The proceeding by quo warranto, however, had arrangements, endeavouring when too late to regain popular long been obsolete when the crown lawyers of Charles II. favour, abandoned them in despair, and issued a proclamaventured to revive it on so extensive a scale. The selection lion to restore corporations to their original state. of this mode of proceeding seems to have been as injudicious Some availed themselves of this advantage and a more as the purpose of it was dishonest. The crown lawyers, constitutional reign; but the select classes of corporations, more violent than learned, observes Mr. Willcock, in the unwilling to relinquish the influence they had acquired introduction to his ‘Law of Municipal Corporations,''instead under the new constitutions of Charles, still retained in their of first proceeding by scire facias to repeal the charters on grasp the municipal power, and by this means prevented pretence of forfeiture, which would have given the subse- the restoration of popular elections. It was a new case for quent judgments at least the semblance of being conclusive, the tribunals. The operation of the recent proceedings mistook their proceeding, and by filing informations in the under the shadow of legal form, and of such surrenders nature of quo warranto against all the obnoxious corpora- and new incorporations, was not generally understood. tions, proceeded in such a manner that it was impossible to Many of the former officers had died or removed from the obtain even the appearance of a lawful judgment against municipalities, the new officers were of the royal party, and them, since it could be sustained only upon two grounds: the aristocratic ascendency was not easily overthrown. The either that there were no such corporations ever established, doctrine of the case of corporations,' above cited, that by a and the bodies assuming to act as such were merely self- bye-law the corporation at large might be divested of ihe constituted; to which the charters and well-known usage elective vote, that it might by the same method be reposed throughout the land offered a manifest contradiction ;-or in the select classes, and that modern usage was sufficient that all the corporations had been dissolved for want of evidence of such a bye-law-in many instances continued officers and members, and the persons assuming to act as the constitution of corporations in the form instituted by such were all mere usurpers; to which the very form of Charles, under pretext of lost bye-laws, after the charters the information offered a plain inconsistency, by admitting were professedly abandoned. that the corporations of which they were accused as usurping "So dilatory and expensive was it for the freemen to vinthe offices were still in existence. Ill-chosen and unjust as dicate their rights, so much were they under the private the measure was, judges were found* vile enough for the control of the members of the select classes, so easy was it royal purpose.' London, which in latter times had usually by compromise with the more active individuals to defer the taken the lead in asserting the political independence of the inquiry, and so unimportant did this franchise in some more important English municipalities, and the example cases appear, that at the present day many corporations are of which, from this circumstance as well as from its supe- not emancipated from the influence of these tyrannical prorior wealth and power, had ever been so influential, was ceedings. The struggle has been violent and expensive ; selected as the first object of attack. At this particular the lapse of time had involved the question in new difficultime it was in especial disfavour; for the king having, with ties; and several important points on this part of the law a view to deprive the last parliament which he held of the were not settled until the decision of the case of Chester, encouragement which was derived from the vicinity of that in the House of Lords, after two trials in the country and powerful and independent city, summoned it to meet at one at bar. Oxford, London not only re-elected the members which it Page 14
contributions had ceased, and such corporations had no mond, St. Ives, Tewkesbury, Walsall, Welchpoole, Wenlonger the means of maintaining municipal institutions of lock, Yurk. any kind. In the case of Grampound, the mayor had left And 15 are municipal only :the borough upon its disfranchisement, and the corporation Bideford, Chesterfield, Congleton, Deal, Doncaster, books and accounts had not been found since ; nor had any Gravesend, Kingston-upon-Thames, Louth, Newbury. Os new mayor been elected until the year in which the late westry, Penzance, Romsey, Saffron Walden, Stockton, commission of municipal inquiry issued. Wisbech. In compliance with an address of the House of Commons, The second schedule (B) comprises that portion of the this royal commission to 'inquire as to the existing state of boroughs of the smallest class not divided into wards, and the municipal corporations in England and Wales, and to having only 4 aldermen and 12 councillors, which are not collect information respecting the defects in their consti- to have a commission of the peace, except upon petition of tution; and to make inquiry also into their jurisdictions and their council and grant by the crown. This schedule, too, powers, and the administration of justice, and in all other is divided into two sections, after the same manner as the respects ; and also into the mode of electing and appointing former. The first section comprises those parliamentary the members and officers of such corporations, and into the boroughs whose parliamentary boundary is to be taken until privileges of the freemen and other members thereof, and further legislated upon, in number 9 :into the nature and management of the income, revenues, Arundei, Beaumaris, Cardigan, Llanidloes, Pwlheli, and funds of the said corporations, and into the several Ruthin, Tenby, Thetford, Totnes. local jurisdictions existing within the limits of England and Of the 11 contained in the second section of this sche. Wales,' was issued in July, 1833; and the general report of dule, whose municipal limits are to remain as before the the commissioners was laid before the king, and before Act until altered by parliament, 23 are also parliamentary :the House of Commons, who ordered it to be printed, in Bodmin, Buckingham, Calne, Chippenham, Droitwiche March, 1835. On this general report, with the particular Eye, Flint, Helstone, Huntingdon, Hythe, Launceston reports upon the several places appended to it, was founded Lyme Regis, Lymington, Marlborough, Morpeth, Penryn, the ministerial bill ‘for the regulation of municipal corpora- East Retford, Rye, Sandwich, Shaftesbury, Tamworth, tions in England and Wales.' Wallingford, Chipping Wycombe. The total number of municipal corporations in England municipal only : and Wales was found by the commissioners to be 246. A Basingstoke, Beccles, Blandford Forum, Chard, Chipping certain number of these, the most inconsiderable in size and Norton, Daventry, Faversham, Folkestone, Glastonbury, population, being lest for future legislation, and London, Godalming, Godmanchester, Llandovery, Maidenhead, South ihe greatest and most complicated of all, with its many Molton, South Wold, Stratford-on-Avon, Tenterden, Torwealthy trading companies, each an important corporation, rington. being reserved as the subject of a distinct bill not yet The fixing of the new municipal boundaries is the task brought before parliament, the total number of the cities, of a distinct commission, which has been actively at work towns, and ports, reconstituted, under the general name of since the passing of the act. Anciently there was no dis boroughs,' by the Municipal Reform Act, is 178. The tinction between municipal and parliamentary limits, beact arranges these in two schedules, each divided into two cause it was by virtue of its being a municipal town that sections. The first schedule (A) comprises those boroughs each borough sent representatives. But in fixing the new which are positively to have a commission of the peace. parliamentary limits under the Reform Act, regard was Their number is 128, and includes all those whose popula. had to various circumstances, which, in many instances, tion is large enough to admit of their division into two or occasioned the tracing of a boundary much too wide to more wards, as also a certain number of those which serve conveniently as the limit of a borough inhabitancy. are not to be so divided; the members of their respective In many cases however it is probable that the boundaries councils to be elected under the act vary, according to the will remain as already indicated in the schedules affixed population, from 4 aldermen and 12 councillors, which is to the Act, especially in those larger parliamentary boroughs the number for Aberystwith, Abingdon, Andevor, &c., and whose great amount of population made it least necessary, is the lowest number allotted by the Act, up to 16 aldermen in settling their limits, to describe a circuit extending and 48 councillors, the highest number fixed by the Act, far beyond the more densely inhabited space. and assigned only to Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, and Norwich. Besides the general inadequacy at the present day of the This schedule is arranged in two sections; the first com- antient borough limits in the more populous towns, there prises those boroughs, 84 in number, the enlarged parlia- were two other classes of anomalies in the old system, in mentary limits of which, as settled by the Boundary Act relation to this matter, which it is of some importance to accompanying the Parliamentary Reform Act for England notice. The first was, that in some cases, as at Grantham and Wales, are to be taken as the municipal limits until and Brecon, the corporate boundary was not continuous, altered by act of parliament. These, of course, are all par- but included outlying parcels of ground. The most reliamentary boroughs as well as municipal. They are : markable instances of this occur in the Cinque Ports. At Aberystwith, Abingdon, Barnstaple, Bath, Bedford, Hastings, for instance, the corporate inagistrates had authoBerwick-upon-Tweed, Bridgewater, Bridport, Bristol, Bury rity, amongst other places, over two detached precincts disSt. Edmunds, Cambridge, Canterbury, Cardiff, Carlisle, tant from that town forty and fifty miles respectively. And Carmarthen, Carnarvon, Chester, Chichester, Colchester, the town of Ramsgate, as well as the corporate town of Dartmouth, Denbigh, Derby, Devizes, Dorchester, Dovor, Deal, both at some distance from Sandwich, were under Durham, Evesham, Gateshead, Gloucester, Guildford, the jurisdiction of the corporation of the latter town. The Harwich, Haverford-west, Hereford, Hertford, Ipswich, second class of these anomalies consisted in the precincts Kendal, Kidderminster, Kingston-upon-Hull , King's Lynn, being often locally situated within the limits of the Leeds, Leicester, Leominster, Lichfield, Liverpool, Mac- corporate authority, but exempted from its jurisdiction. clesfield, Monmouth, Neath, Newark, Newcastle-under- Such existed at York, Lincoln, Norwich, Winchester, and Lyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newport (Monmouthshire), Chichester. These had usually originated in ecclesiastical Newport (Isle of Wight), Northampton, Norwich, Not- privileges, or had been the site of the castle of the lord of tingham, Oxford, Pembroke, Poole, Portsmouth, Preston, the borough. In the city of Canterbury there were fifteen Reading. Ripon, Rochester, St. Albans, New Sarum (Salis- such precincts, though some of them were in dispute bebury), Scarborough, Shrewsbury, Southampton, Stafford, tween the county of Kent and the county of the city. Stamford, Stockport, Sudbury, Sunderland, Swansea, Tiver- The Municipal Reform Act removes both the above deton, Truro, Warwick, Wells, Weymouth and Melcombe scriptions of inconveniences. In each boroug! every place Regis, Wigan, Winchester, Windsor, Worcester, Great included within the general boundary indicated in the Yarmouth. schedules is to form part of that borough; but any place The second section of this schedule contains those bo. hitherto forming part of a city or borough, but not inroughs, in number 44, the municipal limits of which are to cluded within the boundary thus indicated, is henceforward remain as before the passing of this Act, until altered by act to be held as part of the county within which it is locally of parliament. Of these 29 are also parliamentary; viz. situated, and not as part of the borough. Andevor, Banbury, Beverley, Bewdley, Boston, Brecon, In analyzing the change made by the act in the interna, Bridgenorth, Clitheroe, Coventry, Exeter, Falmouth. Gran- constitution of the boroughs, we find that the facts natutham, Grimsby, Hastings, Lancaster, Lincoln, Liskeard, rally resolve themselves into three divisions. The first and Ludlow, Maidstone, Maldon, Plymouth, Pontefract, Rich- most important consists of those relating to the constitution Page 15
Act provides not only for the discontinuance of useless offices, The office of the assessors is, to revise the burgess-lists but for the more effective, regular, and faithful discharge of in conjunction with the mayor, at the annual courts to be those of essential utility. The principal ministerial officer is held for that purpose; to be present with the mayor or an still to be styled town-clerk ; but for the designation of chamalderman, in the respective boroughs or wards, at each an- | berlain, that of treasurer is in all cases to be substituted. nual election of councillors, auditors, and of those who are It is directed in the Act, that the council of every boto succeed them in the office of assessor; and to ascertain rough, on the 9th of November, 1835, shall appoint a fit and declare the result of such elections. person to be a town-clerk ; but by an order in council of 3. Ministerial Officers; their Appointment, Designation, Act was postponed to the 1st of January, 1836. The town October 6th, the first appointment of town-clerk under this and Functions. clerk so appointed is to hold his office during pleasure. He The chief ministerial officers of a borough, as hitherto may be an attorney of one of the superior courts at Westconstituted, have been the public secretary and general minster, notwithstanding any law or custom now existing adviser of the corporation, called most frequently the town to the contrary: he must give such security as the council clerk, though sometimes the common-clerk; and the trea. may require, for the due execution of his office; but he surer, or depositary of the public revenue and keeper of the must not be the treasurer of the borough, nor a member of public accounts, commonly styled chamberlain. Both these the council, nor will he be eligible as auditor or assessor; officers have been appointed during good behaviour, usually and his salary is to be determined by the couneil , who may by the common council; the former sometimes, and the latter fill up any vacancy in the office by a fresh appointment. in a great majority of instances, out of their own body. The town-clerk of every borough is to perform the duties In a few places, the town-clerk was named by the re- connected with the registering and enrolment of burgesses. cordoy, and occasionally he was nominated or approved by In cities or boroughs returning a member or members to the crown. In some towns he was elected yearly by the Parliament, he is likewise to do all things appertaining to freemen from themselves; and in most, it was necessary the due registration of the freemen or burgesses, according that he should be a freeman. He was generally required to the provisions of the Reform Act. He is to be exempted to reside in the borough, and usually was an attorney. He from serving on any jury, either in the borough, or in the had generally a salary, which however in most cases was county wherein the borough is situated. He is also to have little more than nominal; the real inducement for holding the custody of the borough charters, deeds, and records. the situation being the legal business, for which he was The council are directed to appoint every year a fit person paid according to the usual scale of professional charges, or to be treasurer ; he is to give such security as the council the introduction to private practice through his connexion may require. He must not be the town-clerk of the borough, with the members of the corporation. nor a member of the council, nor will he be eligible as The chamberlain's duties have been, to receive the reve- auditor or assessor. His salary is to be determined by the nues, make the requisite payments to the order of the com- council, who may fill up aný vacancy by a fresh appointpetent authorities, keep the accounts, and superintend the ment. He is to keep true accounts, entered in books kept corporation property. In some instances the head of the for that purpose, of all sums received and paid by him, and corporation acted as treasurer; in which case, as in every of the several matters for which such sums shall have been other in which the chamberlain was a member of the com- received and paid ; and the books containing the accounts mon council, he commonly belonged to the body by which are to be open at all reasonable times to the inspection of his accounts were audited. But in some large towns, as any of the aldermen or councillors of the borough. And he London, Bath, and Bristol, this has never been the case. is to submit all the accounts, with all vouchers and papers The chamberlain has been sometimes paid by a poundage thereto relating, to the auditors twice in every year; and on the income collected by him, but more frequently by a after they have been examined and audited by the auditors salary, and by the profit of balances left in his hands : in in the month of September in every year, he is to make out corporations where his receipts were considerable, he was in writing, and cause to be printed, a full abstract of his often required to give security. accounts for the year; a copy of which is to be open to the Inferior officers were found, more or less numerous, in all inspection of all the rate-payers of the borough, and copies the corporate cities and towns. These were either officers of are to be delivered to all rate-payers applying for them, on ceremony, as sword-bearers, mace-bearers, &c.,-of police, payment of a reasonable price for each copy. as constables, serjeants at mace, or town-serjeants,--and others, as beadles, criers, &c., whose functions are suffi- III. OPERATION OF OLD ORGANIZATION POR LOCAL Gociently indicated by their appellations. They were nearly VERNMENT, AND DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS UNDER always freemen under the control of the governing body. THE Reform ACT FOR ENGLAND AND WALES :- 1. IN Many of them had neither duties, fees, nor salaries ; yet LOCAL REGULATIONS.—2. IN MANAGEMENT OF CORPOthey were yearly elected and solemnly sworn to the fulfil- RATE PROPERTY AND REVENUES.-3. In LOCAL TAXAment of their nominal functions, the corporations doubting TION.-4. As TO SPECIFIC TRUSTS AND PATRONAGE. whether they could legally cease to elect any officers named in their charters. The common council of London however 1. Local Regulations. has assumed the authority of abolishing some useless The police belonging to municipal corporations, under the offices, consolidating others, and attaching to them new old system, was for the most part very insufficient. In a and useful functions. great number of towns there were no watchmen, nor policeDefects in the old Constitution of the Ministerial Offices. officers of any kind, except the constables, who were un-One vice,' say the commissioners, which we regard as salaried officers, appointed sometimes at a court leet, but inherent in the constitution of municipal corporations in more frequently by the corporate authorities. Where there England and Wales is, that officers chosen for particular were fairs and markets held within the borough limits, the functions are regarded as a necessary part of the legislative municipal corporation had in most cases the superintendence body. This notion appears to have originated in times and management of them, as incident both to its property when the separation of constitutional authorities was not and to its general municipal authority. Many of these had understood ; when legislative, judicial, and executive func- courts of pie-poudre, which were disused in the majority of tions were confounded. There are serious objections instances. to the practice of allowing the mayor to act as the treasurer Already we have remarked the general resort which has of the corporation, when the examination and audit of his been had to local Acts of Parliament to supply the serious accounts is placed in the body over which he presides. In- deficiencies of the old municipal regulations; and that the convenience of an opposite kind occurs where several per- superintendence of the police, and the powers necessary for sons are required to concur in executing the duties of a watching, paving, lighting, cleansing, and supplying the single office." towns with water, were for the most part committed, in The extent to which some corporations carried the prin- each town, under these acts, to one or more bodies of comciple of treating the corporate offices as matter of mere missioners, independent of the municipal corporation, patronage, is illustrated in the commissioners' general Sometimes, indeed, these powers were shared between the ieport, by two instances where, in two considerable towns, corporate authorities and the commissioners ; and often many of the corporate functionaries were named in these allowances, and ihe number and situation of all stationccts as commissioners, by virtue of their corporate offices. houses in the borough; as also a copy of all rules, orders, But much confusion resulted from this divided authority. &c., made from time to time for the regulation of the con In several towns, owing to the general distrust of the cor- stables or policemen. porate authorities, the inhabitants showed little alacrity to With a view to the merging in the general authority of avail themselves of the provisions of these local acts. Great the municipal council of the powers vested in so many of jealousy often subsisted between the officers of police acting the boroughs, by the local ants of which we have already under the corporation, and those under the local commis- spoken, in the hands of independent boards of commissioners: and the corporate body seldom took any active sioners, it is provided that the trustees appointed by virtue share in the duties of the board of which its members formed of any Act of Parliament, for paving, lighting, cleansing, a part. At Bristol (one of the principal towns of which watching, regulating, supplying with water, or improving the corporations, after the Revolution, clung to the new any borough or part thereof, wherein they or the persons governing charter imposed by Charles II.) Page 16
often had the custody of the gaol. In many places the office mayor's court. Sometimes the bailiffs presided with the had become entirely norainal; in others its original duties mayor; in other instances the recorder, and occasionally had been superseded by those of treasurer, &c. some of the aldermen were judges; in other cases the resometimes filled by one person, oftener by two; at Ber-corder, though a magistrate of the borough, was not a judge wick it was vested jointly in five, by three of whom bailable of the court of record ; in many the town-clerk practically process must be signed. Their emoluments arose from the officiated as such. The officers of these courts were genesame sources as those of the sheriffs; in some towns they rally the town-clerk and the bailiffs or serjeants-at-mace. received a salary, in others they were remunerated by the The town-clerk usually performed all the duties, except profits of part of the corporate property. those belonging to the office of sheriff; he issued writs, Aled Criminal Courts.- À court of criminal judicature has and enrolled the proceedings, granted rales, taxed the costs, been held until the present time in most of the boroughs of and signed the judgments. The bailiffs or serjeants-at-mace England and Wales, though in some this branch of juris- performed the duties which, in actions brought in the supediction has long been disused, and in others it has been of rior courts of common law, devolved upon the sheriffs of late but partially exercised, all serious cases being sent by counties. To them writs were directed; by them they were many to the county sessions or assizes. Some of those served and returned, and generally they were answerable, which formerly exercised jurisdiction over capital offences like sheriffs of counties, for any irregularity in the service. had since abandoned it: others, as Salisbury, Southampton, It must be understood, however, that the character of the and Chichester, still tried capital offences; but where capital officers described by these names varied in different bopunishment was expected to follow conviction, an arrange- roughs; but in every court there was, under some name, a ment was made to prevent a trial before the corporate autho- functionary performing these duties. rities solely. Several corporations, as those of Berwick, The borough courts of record, in their general constituBristol, Canterbury, Exeter, and Rochester, still exercised tion, resembled the superior courts of common law. Where their chartered power of trying and executing for capital created by charter, the proceedings were according to the offences. In a few instances the criminal jurisdiction in- practice of some one of the courts at Westminster. Being cluded that of a court of admiralty ; at Bristol, for example, however seldom regulated by any printed or written rules, felonies committed on a part of the Bristol channel were their practice was very ill defined, though in some few in triable at the ordinary court of gaol delivery, not as at a stances rules have been prepared and published, after ap court of admiralty, but as committed within the limits of the proval, by the judges of assize. Suits were generally comcorporate county: At Marlborough, where the justices were menced, in case of serviceable process, by summons, and of nominated by the mayor, felonies were tried until 1824, bailable process, by capias. As regards the times of the when it was discovered that the corporation possessed no returning of process, and consequently the period of obtainsuch jurisdiction. ing judgment, the practice has been various. In many The ordinary criminal courts were those of general ses courts, precepts in the nature of writs were returnable, and sions and quarter-sessions. Courts of general gaol delivery the other steps in the cause were taken, weekly; in others, existed in very few places : in some of these they were held only every fortnight or three weeks. In contested cases, under charter without any commission issuing from the judgment could be obtained in few under six weeks ; in crown, while in London, Oxford, and some other places, general the period was longer. In some boroughs, as they were never held without such a commission : where no Bridgewater, they had adopted the short and improved forms commission issued, the corporate magistrates were the sole of pleading promulgated by the courts of common law. In judges; the time of holding these courts was sometimes some the process was by distringas, or distraint of the dediscretionary with the corporate magistrates, sometimes re- fendant's goods, and venditioni exponas, or exposure to sale, gulated by the charter, as at Exeter, where they must be in cases where the debt exceeded 40s. This was generally held four times a year, and in practice have been opened at founded on affidavit of the debt ; but at Berwick it issued the same time as the quarter-sessions. The general ses- without affidavit when the demand was under 151., and at sions, too, the ordinary criminal court of the cities and bo- Lancaster when it was under 40s. At Preston, burgesses roughs, seldom differed, as to the time and manner of hold- were exempt from this process. Several courts, as in Loning them, from the county quarter-sessions. In all the cor- don, Bristol, and Exeter, have had the custom of foreign al. porate courts one or more magistrates were specially named, tachment, by which a plaintiff may distrain the goods of his without whose presence the court could not be held ; usually debtor in the hands of a third party within the borough, it was the mayor or the recorder, sometimes both. In some and in default of appearance, cause them to be applied in cases where the presence of the recorder was not necessary satisfaction of his debt. In Lancaster, only the goods of for holding the court, he did not attend, but in many the non-freemen could be thus attached. This custom, where whole business was conducted before him. At Bristol he existing, has been extensively used. tried the prisoners at the gaol delivery, but did not attend Defects of the Judicial Organization in general.- The the quarter-sessions, the prisoners at the latter being tried corporate magistrates were often selected from a class incombefore the mayor and aldermen, but virtually by the town- petent to the discharge of judicial functions. The magisclerk, who there was necessarily a barrister. trates of one borough (Malmesbury) were often unable either The jurors were generally summoned from the inhabit- to write or read ; and at another, having extensive and excluants at large, without strict reference to any qualification ; sive jurisdiction, they have been known to sign blank warsometimes from the freemen alone. In the latter case, the rants. Even where they have belonged to a superior class, they number out of whom they were chosen #3 often inconve- were often selected from the senior aldermen only, who, from niently small. age and infirmity, soon became incapable of performing the In many boroughs no fund was provided for paying the duties of their office, while a mistaken notion of dignity kept expenses of prosecutions; in some they were paid from the them from resigning it. All these evils were heightened by county-rate; in others from a borough-rate in the nature of gross defects in other parts of the judicial system. The a county-rate ; in others from the poor-rate. In many of juries of the borough courts were often taken exclusively the principal towns, as Liverpool, Leeds, Bristol, Hull, from the freemen, who, besides being of an inferior class, were York, Newcastle, Berwick, the criminal courts were attended strongly tainted with party-feelings. At Carmarthen, for by barristers ; but in most of the smaller places the business instance, the commissioners show that verdicts were frewas conducted solely by attorneys. quently given against justice, from party bias; and at Civil Courts.-A great majority of the English and Haverfordwest, where juries could only be impannelled Welsh municipalities possessed also a civil jurisdiction co- from the freemen, they had been openly reprimanded by extensive with the borough limits. These in general had judges and magistrates for improper acquittals of burgesses their origin in particular charters, but occasionally existed on criminal prosecutions; and the general opinion was that by prescription. They varied considerably as to the nature it was 'impossible to convict a burgess.' of the actions they might entertain. In general they had Closely similar were the defects in the administration of cognizance of all personal actions; and in some instances civil justice. The vicious consequences of the union of inof actions real, personal, and mixed. The amount for which compatible functions in the person of the town-clerk we such actions could be brought was often unlimited (subject have already pointed out. Here, too, the juries were often to the power of removal), while in several cases it was re- chosen from the same objectionable class as in the criminal stricted to the recovery of debts under a given amount. courts; at Portsmouth they were selected by one of the ser. The presiding judge in these courts was generally the jeants at-mace, chosen out of two by the plaintiff's attorney ; mayor, whence they were not unfrequently termed the at Chichester they were summoned by an officer who was one of the four nominal atiorneys in court, the real attorney | however granted, are repealed_except he jurisdiction and in the cause having the power of selecting the nominal office of the lord warden as admiral of the Cinque Ports. attorney. The serjeants-at-mace and other ministerial Once in every quarter of a year, or oftener, at his discre. officers of the court, exercising the functions of sheriff, were tion, or at his majesty's direction, the recorder is to hold a often persons whose pecuniary responsibility was inadequate court of quarter-sessions for the borough, of which he is to lo afford any security to the suitors. The costs of a suit sit as sole judge. It is to be a court of record, and have were in general very considerable : those of a plaintiff often cognizance of all crimes, offences, and matters cognizable varying from 15l. to 201., of a defendant from 81. to 121. by any county court of quarter-sessions, the powers of which Page 17
Orders in Coun. cil as to first
ritable trusts, the benefit of which latter was in many in- rough, as named in the schedules to the act by whatere stances exclusively appropriated to the freemen, their style they may be designated, are to go out of office, and widows, or children. But, before the proceeds of any such their whole powers and duties are to cease; but any of them property are so divided, it is directed that the interest of all may be elected according to the new regulations. Every lawful debts chargeable upon it, the salaries of municipal person holding, on the day of the passing of this act, any officers, and all other lawful expenses that on the 5th June, office, a new election to which would by statute, bye-law, 1835, were defrayed out of it, shall be discharged. In like charter, or custom, have taken place between that day and manner every person possessing, on the 5th June, 1835, any the 1st of May, 1836, is to continue to hold such cffice, with such active or inchoate title to freedom, is to have the same all its daties and emoluments, until the time provided by exemption as formerly from any borough tolls or dues, pro- this Act for his going out of office. • Every bailiff, treavided that he pays any sum of money which, in considera- surer, or chamberlain, and every other ministerial or extion of his freedom or of any such right, he would, on the ecutive officer 'who shall be in office at the time of the first old system, have been liable to pay, and fulfils every other election of councillors, may be removed by the council, but condition heretofore required, as far as is consistent with is to continue in office and be paid as beretofore until he the provisions of this act. But all other exemptions from shall be removed or re-appointed under the Act. He must municipal tolls or dues, and the exclusive rights of trading deliver up and account for all corporation property in his poswhich existed in many boroughs, are at once abolished. session to the council, who, iu default, are to have the same The reservation of the freemen's title to the parliamentary remedy against him as against their own officers. Persons franchise, included in the Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832, who, in any borough scheduled in this act, were justices of is distinctly maintained in the Municipal Regulation Act. the peace under the old system at the time of its passing, In anticipation that the several provisions of this act could are to continue to act as such until the 1st of May, 1836, not be carried into effect in the first year (1835), within the but no longer. periods ixed in the act itself for that and all succeeding Every paid officer of a corporation whose office shall be years, one of its clauses empowered the king in council to abolished, or who shall be removed from it under this Act, appoint, for the first year only, any other days before the is to receive adequate compensation from the borough fund, Ist of February, 1836, in lieu of those named in the act for the amount to be fixed by the council, who in so doing are the several stages in the introduction of the new system; to have regard to the manner of his appointment, his term accordingly, the times for the several proceedings in ques- or interest in it, and all other circumstances of his case. tion, as regards the first year only, have been, by order in Of the 246 municipalities which the commissioners state council, extended about two months respectively. The fol- in their General Report to be existing in England aud Wales, lowing table will be found useful, as exhibiting in one clear, about sixty-seven of the more inconsiderable still remain to compact, and chronological view, each separate stage of the be legislated upon; the criminal and civil jurisdictions of proceedings under the new system, with the precise date of which it will doubtless be deemed expedient to abolish, each for the first year, in comparison with that fixed by the although the most eligible course to be adopted in dealing act for all following years. with their other franchises and their property may furnish matter for mature deliberation. London, as we have already Dates fixed by remarked, is reserved to be the subject of a separate bill. Dates fixed by And as regards the large or considerable unincorporated Nature of Proceeding. Year's Proceedthe subsequent towns (including most of the new parliamentary boroughs ings. Years. created by the Reform Act of 1832), a clause of the Muni cipal Act of 1835 recilus that sundry towns and boroughs Nov. 7, 1833 Sept. 5, annually Overseers to make out Lists of Burgesses, of and and Wales are not towns corporate, and it is Between Sept. 5 Overseers to keep Lists of Burgesses for expedient that several of them should be incorporated ;' 17th Nov. 1835 Weck preceding Week preced. Lists to be fixed up by Town.clerk at and enacts, that if the inhabitant householders in any town Nov. 17, 1935 ing Sept. 15, Court House. or borough in England or Wales shall petition the king to yearly Nov. 17, 1833 sept. 1š, yearlij Last day of claiming or objecting Claims him, if he think fit, by advice of his privy council, to grant them a charter of incorporation, it shall be lawful for Notice of objections must be given to extend to the inbabitants of such town or borough, within the Town-clerk, and also to persons the district to be described in the charter, the provisions of Eight days bo- ; Eight days be. Lists of claims and objections to be made this act. Notice of such petition however, and of the time fore Dec. 1, by Town-clerk, and fixed up at Court when it is to be taken into consideration by the privy coun1835 yearly for perusal, and sell the same for 1s.each. cil, is to be published by royal proclamation in the London Between Dec. 1, Between Oct. 1 Lists to be revised after three days' vo Gazette,' one month at least before such time. and 15, yea tice; first year by Barristers, and in We have now traced the history of the boroughs of England comm'ncing subsequent years by Mayor and Asses and Wales, which has recently acquired so fresh and strong Dec. 15, 1835 Oct. 15, yearly Revision of Lists to be completed, signed, an interest, up to the time at which we write. It is not for and delivered by the Revisors, to the us here to speculate at large upon its future course. That Dee. 29, 1835 Oct, 22. yearly Alphabetical Ward Lists to be made out it will be marked by a steady advance in political and social by Town-clerk, and to take effect from amelioration there is hardlý room to doubt. The decided Dec. 26, 1835 Nov. 1, anunally Councillors to be elected; one third an. rellux of that political tide which had so long been setting pually to vacate office. towards the sacrifice of all sound internal organization to Dec. 23, 1835, ivo Nov.3, annnally, Mayor to publish Lists of persons elected the immediate material interests of individuals, of parties, Dec. 31, 1835 Nov, 2, 1833 Aldermen to be first elected, and then and of classes, wielding the executive powers or sharing in one half triennially Jan, 1, 1836. the patronage of government, we have already had occasion and quarterly afterwards, except on Special Summons. must ever tend, could be made the mere sport of irrespon. Jan. 1, 1836, Town-clerk, Treasurer, and Officers to be appointed. sible • prerogative,' it may safely be asserted, are gone for March 1, yearly, commencing 1836, Two Auditors to be electru for each ever in England. It is now the province of the legislature Borongh, with two Assessors in alone to mould by external authority the internal arrangeBoroughs not Warded : and two ments of each municipal commonwealth; and notwithroughs divided into Wards. standing the instinctive bias of a large majority of the hereMay 1, 1836. Power of present Justices to cease ditary house of legislature towards the discouraging and also present constitution of Ses. sions to cease, and Council may shackling of the practice of election--notwithstanding their petition for a grant of power to indulgence of this bias in the important changes which they hold Sessions; and within ten days after such grant mule, Coroner to have made in the bill of municipal reform sent up to them by be appointed by Council, and Re- the representative house--yet the beneficial groundwork of corder to be the sole Judge at Ses. that original measure-that which affords a basis for all fur ther improvement--the practical application of the principle As regards the ceasing of the old offices and the com- that the primary object of a municipal constitution should mencement of the new, it is directed that, after the first to the immediate local security and convenience of the whole ciection of councillors under this act, the mayor, aldermen, resident community, remains unimpaired. The towns of and all other members of the old governing body of the bo- | England barg even now in the state of transition from the
and deliver the same to Town-clerk.
Assessors for each Ward in Bo. Page 18
Fæderis, tum exterorum Scriptorum Græcorum. Accedit The third book is occupied chieily by a paraphrastic Horatii Vitringa Animadversionum ad Johannis Vorstii translation of the Greek poem of Hero and Lean.ler, the Philologiam sucram Specimen,' 8vo. Franeq. 1707; 6. 'An first of the kind which appeared in the Spanish language. edition of the Septuagint,' with prolegomena,' &c., 2 It is elegantly, written, with a pure diction and an easy tom. 4to. 1709; 7. Antiquitatum Græcarum, præcipue versification. To this free translation succeeds a love eleys, Atticarum Descriptio brevis,' 12mo. Franeq. 1713. of the Cupitulo, abounding in pleasing images, but too much this work, which became a school-book, there have been diluted in words, like most Italian poems of the same kind. various editions; it was republished with inprovements by In the Answer to Don Diego Mendoza, the best of Boscan's Jo. Frid. Leisner, 8vo. Lips. 1749. It was translated into epistles, he describes with delicacy and taste the charms of English by Percival Stockdale, 8vo. Lond. 1772 ; again in domestic happiness and rural life. A narrative poem in the an abridged forin, but with notes, by the Rev. John Seagar, Italian style, called Octava kima, cluses this third book. A 8vo. Lond. 1830; and lastly, with an appendix, by George testive meeting of Venus, Cupid, and other mythological Barber, 12mo. Cambr. 1833. A French translation by M. personages, forms the fable, rather carelessly executedt, of this le Grange was published at Paris in 8vo. 1769. 8. Ani- last poem, which is otherwise full of grace and animation. madversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Græcos. Accedit Spe- Simplicity and dignity, poetic truth and feeling, are cimen Animadversionum Latinarum,' 8vo. Franeq. 1715; the characteristics of Boscan; but his chief merit consists 9. In the same year ne published a new edition of Weller's in his courage and perseveranųe in carrying on the literary “Grammatica Græca nova,' 8vo. Amst., adding two chapters reform which was to enable Spain to rival Italy. His moon accentuation and syntax, shorter and more methodical | desty moreover contributed not a little tu attract to his than those of Weller: this work was re-edited with Bos's party the more liberal of his countrymen. Had he com anci other notes by I. F. Fischer, 8vo. Leips. 1756. Bos's menced his labours by trving to beat down the old school notes and emendations on Aristides are included in Jebb's he would probably have failed, for the party he had to conedition cf that author, 2 tom. 4to. 1722-30. tend with was little disposed to improvement, and far less BOSCAN, ALMOGAVER, DON JUAN, was born at to be taught by an arrogant master. Barcelona in the year 1500 of a noble family. On his out- The eighth volume of the Purnaso Español, by Sedano, set in life he devoted himself for a short time to the pro. contains a supplement to the biographical notices which fession of arms. He afterwards travelled, but the countries Nicolas Antonio collected under the article · Buscan.' which he visited are not mentioned in the brief notices that BOSCAWN, EDWARD, second son of Hugh Lord remain oi' him. Although in all probability he went to Italy Viscount Falmouth, was born 19th August, 1711. He was and becar e intimately acquainted with its literature, it applared in the navy early in youth, and at the age of pears that he did not yet entertain the idea of transplanting twenty-one was lieutenant of the Hector. In 1740 he the forins and manner of Italian poetry into Spain ; for the became captain of a twenty-gun ship, the Shoreham ; and poetry that he wrote in his youth was all in the ancient in the following year, urer Admiral Vernon, acquired Spanish lyric style. It was not until 1526, when, after an honourable distinction for his intrepidiiy al ihe taking hüving lived at the court of Charles V., and having formed of the fortified city of Puerto Bello, on the Isthmus of an intimate friendship with Andrea Navajero, the envoy Darien. Shortly after, at the siege of Carthagena, he from Venice, he ventured to follow the counsel of this accom- led on a body of seamen, and resolutely attacked and plished Italian, and assumed the character of a reformer of took possession of a fascine battery of fifteen 24-pounders, the lyric poetry of his nation, by writing sonnets in the while exposed to the fire of five guns from an adjoining manner of Petrarch. fort. On the death of Lord Beauclerk, in the attack The metrical structure of the sonnet had long been known upon Boca Chica, Boscawen succeeded to the command in Spain ; but the genius of Castilian poetry was adverse to of the Prince Frederick of 70 guns. In 1742 he returned that form, and a thousand voices were raised against him to England, married the daughter of William Glanand his friend and more highly-gifted fellow-reformer, Gar- ville, Esq., cf Kent, and in the same year was elected a cilaso de la Vega. Some insisted that a preference should member of parliament for Truro, in Cornwall. After the be given to the old Castilian metre, on the ground of euphony. declaration of war with France, he took the command of the Others went farther, and asserted that the ear could perceive Dreadnought. captured in April , 1744, the French ship no distinction between the new hendecasyllabic verse and Medea, and landed at Spithead with 800 prisoners. As true prose. Finally, a third party discovered that Italian captain of the Namur of 74 guns, he greatly signalized poetry was effeminate, and was fit only for Italians and himseit under Admirals Anson and Warren, in the engage In fact, the attempt was considered nothing short ment of Cape Finisterre, when a capture was made of ten of treason against poetry; and one of this sort of zealots, large French ships of war. In the commencement of the Cristobal de Castillejo, goes so far in his satires against action he was struck in the shoulder with a musket ball. these innovators, whom he calls Petrarquistas, as to compare He was made in the same year rear-admiral of the blue, them to the followers of Luther, the perverters of another and commander-in-chief of the sea and land forces apdoctrine, the subverters of the old faith. Boscan states pointed for the war in India ; and he sailed in November that this violent opposition made him reflect seriously and from St. Helen's Road, in the Isle of Wight, with six ships hesitate in his noble task ; but as he was soon convinced of the line, five frigates, and 2000 soldiers. In July, 1748, of the futility of the reasons urged against his literary re- his teet appeared before the fort of St. David's, which is form, he persisted in carrying it on; and through his perse- 15 m. S. oi Pondicherry. Having marched his army to verance, and the great talents and powerful example of his Pondicherry, and begun i he siege, he was obliged, in consefriend Garcilaso, his party rapidly increased, and obtained quence of the sickness of his men, and the approach of the the superiority. monsoons, to return to his ships; and is said to nave made The urbanity of his manners and his abilities recom- the retreat with prudence and skill. He soon afterwards mended Boscan to the family of Alba, which was then one obtained possession of Madras, which, in consequence of the of the most brilliant among the Castilian nobility, and to declaration of peace, was delivered up to him by the French. which many Spanish poets constantly paid their homage. In 1750 he arrived in the Exeter at St. Helen's, and found Boscan was for sume tiine Ayo, or first governor, to the that in his absence he had become rear-admiral of cue white. young Don Fernando de Alba, who was afterwards the In the course of the following year he was made a lord of the terror of the enemies of the Spanish monarchy. He ap- board of admiralty, an elder brother of the Trinity House, pears, however, to have resigned this employment, in order and again a representative for Truro. In company with to divide his time between study and the society of literary Admiral Mostyn, he sailed in April, 1755, from Spithead with friends. The year in which he died is not exactly known; twenty-four ships, to intercept the French squadron bound it is only ascertained that his death happened before the to America with supplies. Off the coast of Newfoundland he fell in with them, and captured two 64-gun ships, with Boscan's poetry is divided into three books. The first con- 1500 prisoners, including the French commander Hoquart, tains iis Mar de Amor (the Sea of Love), and exhibits the who had twice before been defeated and taken prisoner fantastic flights of the old Spanish muse. by Boscawen. On his return to Spithead with his prizes, The second consists of his Soneios and Canciones, which, be received for this important service the thanks of the although written in imitation of those of Petrarch, still dis- | House of Commons. The scene of war was now transferreri ples the spirit of the old poetry, in which the mild dispo- i to North America. A fleet of 151 ships (Ann. Reg. vol. i. sition of Buscan contrasts ihroughout with the enthusiastic p. 70), with 14,000 men, was fitted out, and Boscawen, rein of his mudel. row promoied to tlie rank of admiral of the blue, was Page 19
Bihacz, Ostrovacz, and Banyaluka. There are iron-ware | name from the principal town, which lies on the eft bank manufactures about Bosna-Sarai ; they include fire-arms, of the Drinna, is defended by two castles and other works, swords; and small ware; and similar fabrics are made at and contains about 15,000 inh.: Novibazar, in the E. part Shebze, Banyaluka, and Mostar. In Mostar Damascus of Bosnia, of which the chief town Novi or Yemibazar is blades also are made. situated on a small tributary of the Ybar, in the bosom of a The exports of Bosnia comprise wool, honey, and wax, highly productive district, defended by a citadel, and having goats' hair, hides, morocco and other leather, timber and about 10,000 inh.; and Hersek, formerly the Herzegovina, other articles of wood, worsted coverlids &c., horses, horned the chief place in which is Trebinge, on the Trebinchicza, a caitle, sheep, goats, swine, poultry, dried fish, mineral strongly fortified town with about 10,000 inh.; and next to water, pitch, and other domestic produce: and the imports this, Mostar, on the Narenta, a fortified town with a pop. of consist of linens, woollens, silks, cotton goods, glass-ware, about 8000. tlax, steel-ware, paper, tin, lead, copper, and iron-wares, BO'SPORUS, often incorrectly written BOSPHORUS, quicksilver, drugs, indigo, colonial produce, &c. The prin is a pure Greek word (Boonopoc): according to mythological cipal seats of trade are Bosna-Sarai, Zvornik, Banyaluka, tradition it derives its name from the passage of lo over one Mostar, Dervent, and Berbir, or Turkish Gradisca. Bosnia of the straits so called, when she was turned into a cow carries on a considerable transit-trade with the adjacent (Æsch. Prom. 733 ); the Bosporus, as thus explaineri, litecountries in Levant produce; the imports chielly come in rally signifying 'the passage of the cow. Two straits are through Kostainicza, Brod, and Alt-Gradisca; and it ex- mentioned by Greek and Roman writers under this name. ports through the six depôts established on the frontiers, or One, now more commonly called the Channel of Constanby caravan to Zara and Spalatro. The roads are bad and tinople, unites the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora, to the almost impassable except for horses, as is the case through- Black Sea. This narrow channel was often called the out the Turkish territories. Independently of the great road Thracian Bosporus, by way of distinction from the other from Brod through Travnik, and thence to Bosna-Serai and named the Cimmerian. The Cimmerian Bosporus, now Constantinople, there are only seven other highways for in the Straits of Kaffa or Yenikalé, is the narrow passage ternal intercourse. which connects the Palus Mæotis or Sea of Azof' with the It is impossible to give a correct estimate of the pop. of Bos- Black Sea. (Azof.] nia. Some writers state it at a million; others at 920,000; A narrow slip of low and fertile land on the S.E. margin and 840.800; von Zedlitz (in his · Brief Survey of Bosnia, of the Taurica Chersonesus, the modern Crimea, formed the Rascia, the Herzegovina, and Servia in 1829,) gives us in antient kingdom of Bosporus. It extended about 60 m. in one portion of his work the following enumeration :-Bos- length, direct distance, from Theodosia or Theudosia, now niaks, the aboriginal race, 250,000 ; Servians, 120,000; Feodosia or Kaffa, on the W. to Panticapaum or Bosporus, Turks, 240,000; Morlachians, 75,000; Croats, 40,000; gyp- now Kertsch, on the Straits of Yenikalé. Both Theodosia sies, 16,000 ; Jews, 2000; and Armenians, 800; making a and Panticapæum, the capital of this little kingilom, had total of 743,800; but in a subsequent page, he speaks of the good ports; and between them was Nymphæum, which also religious sects into which the mhabitants are distributed as had a good harbour. Panticapæum was a Milesian colony, consisting of 450,000 Mohammedans, 250,000 Roman Ca- Besides the territory already described, the Greek kings of thulies, 220,000 Greeks, 2000 Jews, and 800 Armenians; Bosporus possessed Phanagoria, now Tmutarakan, on the in all 922,800. pen. Taman, which forms the E. side of the Straits of The inh. of Bosnia are composed of Bosniaks, a race of | Yenikale; and finally they seem to have become masters Sclavonian origin, who chiefly reside between the Verbas of the whole Crimea. The series of Greek kings from s.c. and Drinna ; Servians, dwelling partly in the sandshak of 430 to B.C. 304 (so far as yet known) is as foilows:-ArNovibazar, and partly on the E. bank of the Drinna ; Croats, chæanactidæ (Diod. xii. 31) 8.c. 480 ; Spartacus I., 438; whose abode is between the Verbas and Unna; Morlacks Seleucus, 431; a reign of 20 years, but the name of the and Montenegrinos, principally situated in the sandshak of king unknown; Satyrus I., 407; Leucon, 393; Spartacus Hersek; Turks, who are settled in almost every town, and 11., 353; Parysades i Pærisades on his medals), 3-18; Salikewise people exclusively the district of Klincz ; Arme- tyrus 11., 310; Prytanis; Eumelus, 309; and Spartacus nians; a'few Greeks; and lastly, Jews. The majority of III., B.C. 304. (Clinton, Fasti, vol. i.) of all these kinys the pop. are of the Greek faith ; a portion of the Bosniaks Leucon is best known to us from Demosthenes (Oration and other inh profess the Roman Catholic faith; the Turks Against Leptines), who may be considered his contemporary. and many of the Bosniacks adhere to Mohammedanism. During the reign of Leucon, and that of Satyrus his pre The civil administration of Bosnia is on the same footing decessor, the Athenians imported large quantities of grair as that of the other eyalets of the Turkish dominions. It is from the Bosporus : indeed Demosthenes asserts that the governed by a pasha of three tails, to whom the governors quantity brought from the Bosporus to Athens was equal to of the six sandshaks, who are pashas of two tails, are sub- all the corn imported from all other foreign places. A ordinate. The judicial system consists of a cadi, who ex- mutual good understanding subsisted for some time between ercises jurisdiction orer certain districts, even with reference Athens and the kings of the Bosporus. to such as are not Turks, although the Bosniacks and other At a later date the Bosporas formed part of the kingram non Mohammedans have their village magistrates, from of the great Mithridates, who is said to have died at Pan. whose decisions there is seldom any appeal to the cadi. ticapæum. The kingdom of the Bosporus, with all the The revenue of the province is estimated at about neighbouring districts, then fell into the hands of the Ro700,0001. or 800,0001. per ann.; though not more than mans, who gave it to Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates. 300,000l. is said ultimately to reach the Turkish treasury. Pharnaces having invaded Pontus and exercised great This revenue is derived from the ‘Karadsh,' a poll-tax vary- cruelties towards the Roman citizens, was attacked by J. ing from nine to thirty shillings a year, which every male Cæsar and defeated. He tled to his kingdom of Bosporus, non-Mohammedan pays after attaining his seventh year; where he was immediately murdered, and his throne was of taxes on land, houses, trades, &c. ; excise duties, customs given by the dictator to Mithridates of Pergamum (about dues, and judicial penalties. B.C. 47). This kingdom of Bosporus continued under the The chief places in the six sandshaks are, in that of Roman emperors, but is only known to us from the occaTravnik, which lies in the S.E. part of Bosnia Proper, sional interference of the Cæsars in the nomination of a Bosna-Sarai on the Migliazza ; and Travnik, at the con- king, or in attempts to restore tranquillity. (Tacit. Annal. fluence of the Lashwa and Voroluka, where the pasha of the xii. 15-21.) A race of half Greek, half barbaric kings conprovince resides, about 8000 inh.: Banyaluka, in the W. tinued to possess the Crimea and the neighbouring coasts of part of Bosnia, between the Unna and Okrina, contains the the Black Sea at least to the time of the Avtonines, and town of the same name, lying on the Verbas, which is forti the kingdom of Bosporus almost survived the Roman Emfied and has about 16,000 inh. ; Yaicza, formerly the capital pire, and only expired under the ravages of the Huns. of Bosnia, at the junction of the Pliva with the Verbas, a A great quantity of Greek antiquities, including coiris walled town with a pop. of about 3000; Kamengrad, a and inscriptions, have been dug up at Panticapæum and mining town on the Sanna ; and Berbir on ihe Save, oppo- other places within the limits of the Greek kingdom of the site the Austrian town of Gradisca, a strongly fortified Bosporus. Coins of Leucon, of Pærisades, of the town of place : Srebernik, in the centre of Bosnia, between the Panticapæum, and others, have been found : some of these, Okrina and Drinna, has the town of that name for its capital; such as the coin of Pærisades, are exceedingly fine; others it is situated on a small stream that joins the Save : İsvor- that belong to the period of the Roman Empire are ruder. pik or Zvornik, in the N.E. part of Bosnia, also takes its Raoul-Rochette has published two medals of Rhescu poris. Page 20
s by no means certain that there was a branch road | the steelyard were so called, from the circumstance of their to it. Lincolnshire was a part of the kingdom of Mercia trading almost entirely by weight, and using the steelyard during the heptarchy, and the Saxon Chronicle informs us as their weighing apparatus. Boston was still further rethat .St. Botolph built a monastery here, A.D. 654, which duced by the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII. existed till the county was ravaged by the Danes, A.D. 870. Some amends were made by Henry in granting the towi Bede says that St. Botolph had a monastery at Icanhoe. a charter of incorporation, it was thus made a free boLeland claims Lincoln as the site of Icanhoe, the spot rough, and enjoyed many important privileges. By this where the monastery was built. From the testimony of charter, granted in the 37th of Henry VIII., the borough is many antiquaries, Boston appears to have been the antient at present chietly governed. Philip and Mary, in the first Icanhoe, and the site of St. Botolph's monastery. Some year of their reign, endowed the corporation with a rich topographers are satisfied with concluding that Boston is a grant of lands and messuages, to assist in maintaining the corruption of Botolph's town. Dr. Stukeley says, 'Icanhoe, bridge and port, for supporting a school in the town, for Icanhoc, or as it was commonly called, according to Dug- finding two presbyters for the celebration of divine worship dale, Wenno, is supposed to have been the antient name in the parish church, and for the maintenance of four of Boston; and also that it was the last bounds north- beadsmen to pray there for ever for the good and prosperwards of the Iceni; he therefore concludes its old name ous state of the queen while living. This valuable endowwas Icanhoe. (Thompson's Collections for a History of ment, according to the original record, in the Chapel of the Boston.) Rolls, consisted of fifty messuages, ten gardens, and 227 Boston not being mentioned in Domesday Book,' Mr. P. acres of land, situated immediately near Boston. The late Thompson supposes that it was included with Skirbeck, for municipal inquiry however shows the property to be • 511 at the present day, it is very nearly surrounded by Skir- acres, i rood, and 21 perches of land, and some houses, and beck, and appears to occupy the very centre of the land yields a yearly rent of 21421. 168. 6d. This difference is which, in the Domesday Survey, was returned as belonging accounted for partly by a presumed inaccuracy in the meato that parish. surements, and partly by the circumstance of many allotModern History,-Little worthy of notice is recorded of ments having been made to the corporation under Inclosure Boston during the early part of the Norman government. Acts. (Corporation Reports.) In the year 1204 it was a wealthy town; for when the During the reign of Elizabeth the port continued to dequinzième was levied (a duty which was raised on the cline, though she granted the mayor and burgesses a charter fifteenth part of land and goods, at the several ports of of admiralty, giving them power to levy certain duties on England), the merchants of Boston paid 7801.; London ships entering the Norman Deeps.' In 1571 Boston and paid 836l. (Madox's Hist, of the Exchequer.) London paid the surrounding district suffered much from a violent tem the largest sum of any port, and Boston was the second in pest, an account of which is given by Hollinshed. During amount. (Thompson.) A great annual fair was held at Bos- the latter part of that century it was visited by the plague, ton; at what date established is unknown, but it is on record and in 1625 it had a similar visitation. In 1643 Boston was that it was resorted to from Norwich, Bridlington, and Craven strongly fortified for the king and parliament, but it was during the thirteenth century. Articles of dress, wine, and soon crowded with the parliamentary soldiery, and made the groceries formed part of its commerce. In 1281 part of Boston head-quarters of Cromwell's army. The principal men of was destroyed by ire; and in 1286 a great part of the town the district favoured the cause of the Protector.' In June, and the surrounding district suffered from an inundation. 1643, Colonel Cavendish defeated the parliamentary troops This flood is probably the same as that mentioned in at Donington, near Boston, and soon after Cromwell removed Stowe's Chronicle, p. 229. ‘An intolerable number of his quarters to Sleaford. On the restoration of Charles II. men, women, and children were overwhelmed with the a warrant was issued, by whicla some of the officers of the water, especially the towne of Boston, or Buttolphe's-towne, borough were removed, in consequence of the favour they a great part whereof was destroyed. It was one of the had shown in the cause of Cromwell. About the middle of towns, appointed by the statute of staple (27th Edward III.), the eighteenth century, the commerce of Boston fell into where the staple of 'wools, leather, woolfels, and lead," still greater decay, 'through the ruinous state into which should be held. A staple town is described by Weever as the river and haven had fallen, in consequence of neglect a place to which, by authority and privilege, wool, hides, and mismanagement, and from errors committed in the wine, corn, and other foreign merchandize are conveyed to execution of works of drainage.' (Thompson.) be sold; or, it is a town or city whither the merchants of Ecclesiastical History.—Dr. Stukeley supposes that the England, by command, order, or commandment, did carry monastery of St. Botolph stood on the south of the present their lead, tin. or other home produce for sale to foreign church ;' he saw vast stone walls dug up there, and a plain merchants. Many merchants from the important com- leaden cross. Nothing is known of this establishment exmercial towns of the continent resided at Boston during cept the dates of its foundation and destruction, which have this early period, and it is probable that both the above been mentioned. The Dominican, or black friars, were characteristics of a staple town were combined in it. It established at Boston in the early part of the thirteenth also ranked high as one of the sea-ports of the kingdom, its century: A.D. 1288 their church was burnt in a riot situation at the mouth of the Witham giving it advantages (Tanner's Notitia Monastica); but they were afterwards equal to those of any other port on the eastern coast. The re-established. The Carmelite friars had a priory at Boston, advantages which Boston possessed as a place of trade, founded in 1301, and various small grants of land from brought over the merchants of the Hanseatic league, who pious individuals, and from Henry IV.; and their order established their guild here. In 1359 Edward III. assessed was patronized by Thomas Earl of Rutland. Not a vestige of eighty-two towns to provide ships and men for the invasion this priory remains: at the dissolution of the religious houses, of Brittany. • Boston furnished to this navy seventeen its site was granted to the mayor and burgesses of Boston. ships and 361 men, a greater number of vessels than was The Augustine friars had also an establishment at Boston, supplied by Portsmouth, Hull, Harwich, or Lynn; and founded in 1307; and also the Franciscans, or grey friars, equal in number of ships, and superior in number of men one founded in 1332, and under the wardenship of the mo those furnished by Newcastle; out of the eighty-two nastery at York. The sites of these houses were granted to towns, only eleven sent a superior number of ships to the corporation at the Reformation. Some other minor Boston. (Archæologia, and Thompson's Collections.) religious houses are recorded as having existed at Boston. About 1470 the trade of Boston received a check in con- Several associations, called Guilds, existed at Boston, some sequence of some dispute, when one Humphrey Littlebyri, of which seem to have had a mixed character. The monks marchant of Boston, did kill one of the Esterlinges ;' (sup- are supposed to have been their first founders. The guild posed to be the same as the Hanseatic merchants); 'this of St. Botolph was a fraternity of merchants, which appears caused the Esterlinges to quit Boston, and syuz the town to have had only mercantile objects in view. The guild of sore decayed. ( Leland's Itinerary, vol. vii.) At the time Corpus Christi is thought to have been a religious one; at when Leland wrote his account of Boston (1530), the com- the Dissolution it was called a college. The guild of the merce of the town had begun to decline. He speaks of Blessed Mary was one of greater importance, and in its the 'great and famous fair, and of the old glory and purposes partly religious. Its hall is at present used by riches that it had, as matters of history, and says, 'the the corporation for their judicial proceedings, public dinners, staple and the stilliard houses yet there remayne, but the &c. The council-chamber contains a portrait of Sir Joseph stilliard is little or nothing at all occupied. The stilliard Banks, by Lawrence, which was presented by him to the nouso was the antient custo'n-house, and the merchants of corporation on his election to the office of recorder of Boston, in 1809. The guild of St. Peter and St. Paul was a reli- | and embanking have also been obtained. The most favour gious establishment, and had a chapel, or an altar in the able results have followed these measures, which began to parish church. St. George's guild was a trading commu- be visible as soon as the larger works were completed. nity, and respecting that of the Holy Trinity nothing is Town Government, Population, Expenses, 8c.- Boston known. The possessious of all these guilds were vested in has been chietly governed by the charter of Henry VIII., the corporation of Boston when the religious houses were already mentioned. The title of the corporation was, The dissolved. Page 21
Russia Sweden and Denmark
been twice driven back, succeeded in dislodging their oppo- | free and equal, which declaration was decided by the su 1831. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. With the exception of a spot in the south-western part of Foreign Trade 817 179,261 820 189,399 the city, called the Common, and containing about seventy 820 200,000 60,678 600 58,000 five acres, the whole of the peninsula is occupied by build- Whale Fishery 47.806 27,024 ings. The city is connected with the main land by six Cod and Mackerel Trade 11,400 61,705 1,600 60,281 |1.650 65,00€ bridges-Charles River Bridge, leading to Charles-town 2,881 349,450 3,095 329,377 3,220 368,000 on the north, is 1503 feet long; West Boston Bridge, leading to Cambridge port on the west, is 7810 feet long; The value of imports and exports from and to foreign between these two is Canal Bridge connected with Lech- countries during the same years, was as follows: mere point, 2796 feet long; two bridges unite the peninsula to a suburb on the main land, called South Boston ; and the sixth connexion with the main land is by means of a mill-dam, which serves also for a bridge on the south Imports. Esparts. Imports. Exports. Imports, Exports. west side of the city: this mill-dam is nearly two miles long, and 50 feet wide. £. 318,750 38,020 166,666 43,229 334,645 36,750 Boston Bay or harbour is formed by numerous small 94,166 33,333 76,041 39,729 67,350 59,500 islands, on one of which, at the entrance, is a light-house Brazils 59,791/ 62,916 71,197 73,677 82,604 89,270 sixty-five feet high with a revolving light. The islands, Great Britain 833,333 72,916 735,5204 31,250 1,256,250 41,666 57,083 135,000! 62,708 142,708 88,750 and the numerous shoals, render it necessary for vessels to 19,166 16,770 take on board a pilot. There is in general sufficient depth 13,854 86,562 19,166 110,625 of water within the bay at all times of the tide, to enable Cuba and Spanish the largest vessels to reach the town where they are moored 153, 125 219,583 248,958 187,916 414,854 224.375 alongside wharfs, of which there are about sixty, some of China 239,593 141,145 200,504 39,270 158,750 67,709 Other countries them of extensive dimensions : one, called • Long Wharf,' 416,666 416,666 333,333 416,666 208,333 416,666 is 550 yards long; and another, called Central Wharf,' is 2,371,455 1,041,662 1,981,073 981,007 2,703,726 1,152,080 more than 400 yards long and 50 broad, with a range of lofty brick warehouses along its entire length: vessels The imports consist principally of woollen, motton, linen, lie here in perfect safety from whatever quarter the wind and silk manufactures, sugar, coffee, indigo, hemp, and may blow. The entrance to the harbour is so narrow as the quantity of iron annually imported amounts to scarcely to admit two ships abreast; it is defended by forts 15.000 tons. The exports consist of fish and fish oils, constructed on several of the islands, close to which ships salted meat, flour, soap, and candles, with a small quanmust pass. tity of the cotton manufactures of the country. The amount 1829 120,952 89,114 better taste, the streets are wide and straight, and the 1830 107,007 91,722 houses spacious : several are constructed of granite. Many 1831 109,685 Boston contained in October, 1833, twenty-five banks, neuil Hall, in which the citizens hold their public meetings; with an aggregate capital of upwards of sixteen millions of two theatres, and several halls belonging to different asso. dollars. The highest rate of dividend made by any of these ciations. The State House stands on an elevated spot, and establishments is seven per cent. per annum, and the commands an extensive view of the bay and surrounding lowest is five per cent. per annum: the greatest number country: it contains a fine statue of Washington. There divide six per cent. annually. [For further particulars reare in the city between forty and fifty churches, some of specting the banks of Boston see the article Bank and which are handsome buildings. St. Paul's Church, in BANKING, vol. iii. page 388.) There are also twenty-nine Common Street, contains a monument to the memory of companies incorporated for fire and marine insurances, the Dr. Warren, who was killed at the battle of Bunker's Hill. aggregate of whose capitals is 8,100,000 dollars. Boston, which was the birth-place of Franklin, is also the The trade of Boston is facilitated by means of the Midplace of his burial. He was interred in the Granary dlesex canal, which was completed in 1808. and runs from ground, where the spot is marked by a cenotaph, Boston harbour to Merrimack river at Chelmsford, thus The progress of the city will be seen from the following opening a cheap communication with the central part statement of the amount of its population at various dates of New Hampshire. More than 120 stage coaches leave from the beginning of the last century: Boston, and as many arrive daily with passengers to and Population. Year. Population, from all parts of the Union. 1700 -7,000 1800 24,937 The General Court of Massachusetts,' consisting of a 1722 10,567 1810 33,250 senate and house of representatives, the former having 1742 16,382 1820 43,298 furty and the latter an indefinite number, sometimes ex. 1752 17,574 1825 58,281 ceeding 500 members, meet at Boston twice in every year, 1765 15,520 1830 61,392 in January and May. The supreme courts of judicature 1790 18,038 for the state are likewise held in the city. There is also a From this statement it appears that the mcrease since court consisting of three justices, styled the police court the beginning of the present century has been 146 per for the city of Boston, and a municipal court, consisting of cent, the numbers gisen are exclusive of the population one judge, who has cognizance of all crimes, not capitai, of Charlestown. The whole are free citizens, the constitu- committed within the city and the county of Suffolk, it dcn of tbe state having declared that all men are born which it stands. Page 22
to the one kingdom or the other. A drop of water and a To which kingdom are we to refer the bequtiful Sallittle brown or green slime from a ditch will often utford macis and all the tribe by some botanists called Conferyce abundant evidence of the accuracy of this remark. conjugata, or Zygnemas, which Messrs. Gaillon and De If we place a drop of water and a few fragments of con- Blainville assert to be of animal nature, but which grow fervæ under a microscope, we shall probably discover an like vegetables, from which they are undistinguishable by abundance of little bodies shaped like a weaver's shuttle, external characters. They are transparent tubes, having transparent at the extremities and in the middle, with two distinct articulations and transverse partitions, the cavity or four semi-opaque brownish cavities in their inside : these being filled with brilliant green spherules arranged with the bodies have a sort of starting motion, very distinct and con- most beautiful symmetry in one or niore spires, which, tinued, but they do not seem capable of turning on either separating at a certain period of their existence, and păssing axis; nor is any motion of contraction visible; they vary in through the sides of the tube, develop in the form of new length, according to De Blainville (Dict.des Sc. Nat.34,367), tubes exactly like their parent. When in a perfect state from the five-hundredth to the hundredth of a line, and the contiguoụs tubes or filaments unite in a manner comwhen full grown exceed these dimensions considerably. By pletely animal in appearance, uniting at one period, sepaMüller, a standard writer upon infusorial animalcules, they rating at another, and finally combining themselves into are considered animals, and referred to his genus Vibrio, a single and uniform being. part of which consists of bodies of an undoubted animal Lastly, where are we to place the oscillating confervæ, nature. By modern observers they have been named Navi- those slime-like masses which cover ihe earth in damp and cula. When young they are attached to confervæ by a shady places, or form mucous patches among ihe conferiæ stalk so delicate as to be almost invisible with the aid of the and polypes of stagnant water, or appear under the form of most perfect microscopes, and during this period they have, a rich carmine stain, bordered with resplendent violet and according to M. Bory de St. Vincent, no visible motion blue, on the surface of hot springs, in all parts of the world, whatever ; but when the Navicula is fully formed it sepa- productions which, according to the speculations of an ingerates from the plant on which it grew, swimming and start- nious Swedish naturalist, have once possessed an animal ing about in the water in the way described. Are such life, of which they now only retain the appearance. These productions animal or vegetable ?' When young they are oscillatorias consist of articulated tubes filled with green motionless and vegetable like a minute plant; when full granules, and grow and increase like confervæ, and the regrown they acquire the movement of animals. Perhaps one productive particles to which they give birth have no momay say they are the latter, and compare their vegetating tion that is apparent. But the tubes themselves have a state when young to that of the Polype, called Vorticella, an writhing, twisting, undulating, creeping, distinctly animal undoubted animal, if rapid and varied motion can make it so. motion, which it is impossible to mistake; they are more Among confervæ in ditches are often found little fray- active in warm than in cold weather, and in the latter can ments of organized bodies ; some like ribbands, separable be excited to action by the application of warmth. When completely into numberless narrow transverse portions, chemically examined, they have been found to exhibit many others dividing partially at their articulations, but ad of the characters peculiar to the animal kingdom; anii hering at their angles like chains of square transparent when burnt, yield a carbon of the most fetid odour, exactly These enter the genera called by naturalists Dia- resembling that of decaying animal substances. toma, Fragilaria, Exilaria, Achnanthes. Are they animals Such are a few of the difficulties which that naturalist has or plants? When combined they are motionless, with to overcome who would fix the limits between the animal all the appearance of conferva, their transparent joints and vegetable kingdoms. It is clear that the power of filled with the green reproductive matter of such plants; voluntary motion exists in beings having a distinctly vegebut when they disarticulate, their separate portions have a table structure, both in the most perfect state and in a state distinct sliding or starting motion. Shall we call them, with of disintegration ; that the absorption of nutriment from M. Gaillon, chains of animals assembled in a voluntary cap- the inside in the one family, and from the outside in the tivity which no one has seen them assume; or shall we not other, is a character not appreciable in such creatures as the be rather justified in viewing them as links between the monads, and the rivifying animalcules of flowering plants ; animal and vegetable kingdoms, and endowed with the cha- and, finally, that chemical differences are destroyed by anaracters of both. baina and oscillatorias. In this difficulty shall we admit, Conferva mutabilis, or Draparnaldia, is a plant-like body, with M. Bory de St. Vincent, a new kingdom intermediate which, according to Messrs. Mertens and Gaillon, is some- between animals and plants, characterized as consisting of times an animal, sometimes a plant. The former says that insensible individuals, that develop and increase in the he has frequently seen it undergo its transformation, parti- manner of vegetables, up to the period when they separate cularly in August, 1822. On the 3rd of that month he into animated germs or reproductive fragments; or shall showed it to a great number of persons in a state of plant ; not we rather consider the absence of all exact limits beon the 5th it had disarticulated into portions distinctly mov- tween animal and vegetable nature as a striking proof of ing in water, which on the 6th began again to unite, and on the beautiful harmony of nature, and of that unity of purthe 10th became finally combined into their primitive state pose which is so visible in all the works of the Creator; as of conferva. (Dict. des Sc. Nat., 34, 373.) an evidence that all the forms of life are but assemblages It perhaps may be said that the instances yet given are in insensible gradation of the same living matter differently not at variance with the distinction of animals and vegeta- combined by the great Spirit that pervades all matter and bles by their power of motion; and that as they are all inert all space ? wien in their most perfect state, their giving birth to moving II. In treating of the history of this science, we have no bodies does not make them animals any more than the pro- intention of entering upon details which can only interest duction of motionless eggs by birds, reptiles, and mollusca the systematical botanist, or of criticising every step which makes them vegetables. its followers may have taken; but, on the contrary, we shall In which kingdom then are we to station the curious Poly-confine ourselves to a mere sketch of the progress that has physa, a most undoubted polyp, according to Lamouroux, been made in elucidating the great principles by which its Leman, and De Blainville; an equally certain plant if we rank as a branch of philosophy is to be determined. are to believe Turner, Agardh, and Gaudichaud, the last of It is obvious from various passages in the most antient wliom found it living, and describes it thus. It grows in thick writers, that the art of distinguishing certain plants having tufts to the shells which are thrown ashore upon the barren medical virtues was taught at the earliest period of which coast of Shark's Bay in New Holland. Each individual we have any written record; and that the cultivation of consists of a fistular, capillary, greenish stalk, about an inch something more than corn was already understood in the or an inch and a half long, expanding at the base into a Homeric days is sufficiently attested by the references to sort of root-like claw, by which it is fixed. At the end it the vineyards of Laërtes and the gardens of Aleingus, and bears from fifteen to eighteen sacs, which are entire, rounded by the employment assigned to Lycaon, the son of Priam, at the end, and slightly attenuated to the basc; each con- of pruning figs in his father's garden. tains a multitude of little round green globules, which The earliest tangible evidence that we possess of the real finally expand and break through the thin case in which state of knowledge upon this subject is afforded by the rethey are included. They are filled with a green unctuous mains of the writings of Aristotle and his school. From the matter, and the colour of the parent body is entirely due to absurd superstitions of the root-cutters (rhizotomi) of this their presence, for when they have all escaped from ti sir period it might be imagined that at this time botany was far sacs, the mother body is perfectly colourless. from having any real existence; for it is to them that we Page 23
Eljugous, in two pairs, placed end to end Coriaceous, of a leathery texture Ducts, spiral vessels that will not unroll Binale, growing in pairs Cormus, a solid, roundish, underground Dumose, having a compact bushy form Bipartile, divided into two deep lobes stem, as in Crocus Duramen, the heart-wood of timber Bipinnale, twice pinnate Corneous, of a horny texture Biserrate, twice serrate Corniculate, shaped like a slender horn Echinate, covered with hard sharp points Brachiate, when branches stand nearly at Coroila, the second of the two envelopes Elaiers, little spirally.twisted hygrometrical right angles to the stem from which they that surround the stamens and pistil threads utat disperse the spores of June proceed Corona, a combination of fertile and barren germannias Bract, the leaf or leaflet from the axil of stamens into it disk, as in Stapelia Elementary organs, the minute parts of which which a flower grows Corymbose, when the branches surrounding the texture of plants is composed Bulb, a scaly, underground bud a common axis are shortest at the top Emarginate, having a notch at the point Bulbotuber, a short, roundish, underground and longest at the bottom, so as to form Embryo. the rudimentary plant before ger. stein resembling a bulb a level-topped whole mination commences Costa, the midrib of a leaf Endocarp, the hard lining of some periCaducous, falling off sooner or later Cotyledons, the leaves of the embryo carps Cæsious, of a bluish grey colour Crateriform, shaped like a goblet Endogen, a plant which increases in diaCæspitose, growing in tufts Crenellect or Crenated, having rounded meier by addition to its centre, as a palm. Calcar, a spur or horn ; as in the nasturtium notches at the edges tree Calcurate, having a spur or horn Crested, having some unusual and striking Enneandrous, having 9 stamens Calyculate, having a whorl of bracts on the appendage arising from the middle Ensiform, having the form of a straight and outside of a calyx, or of an involucre Cruciate, when four parts are so arranged narrow sword blade Calyptra, the hood of a moss as to resemble the arms of a Maiiese Epicarp, the external layer of the pericarp Calyx, the external envelope of a flower Epidermis, the skin of a plant, in the lanCombuim, a viscid seeretion formed in the Cucullate, hooded, rolled inwards so as to guage of some writers; the cortical intespring between the bark and wood of conceal anything lying within gument according to others Exogens Culm, the straw of grasses Epigynous, growing upon the top of the Campanulate, bell-shaped Cuneate, wedge-shaped ovary, or seeming to do so Canaliculate, channelled Cupule, the cup of the acorn, the husk of Equitunt, when leaves are so arranged that Cuncellate, a leaf which has veins without the filbert, chestnut, &c. ; a peculiar com- the base of each is enclosed within the connecting parenchyma bination of bracts opposite base of that which is next below Capitale, growing in a head Cuspidate, abruptly rounded off with a pro- it; as in Iris Capitulum, a collection of flowers in a head jecting point in the middle Estivation, see Æslivation Capsule, any dry many-seeded fruit Cuticle, the external skin Exogen, a plant which increases in diameter Carinate, having a kind of keel Cyathiform, cup-shaped, more contracted by the addition of new wood to the outCarnose, fleshy at the orifice than crateriform side of the old wood; as an oak-tree Carpel, one of the parts of a compound Cyme, an inflorescence having a corymbose pistil; a single leaf rolled up into one of form, but consisting of repeatedly-branch- Farinaceous, mealy the integers of a pistil ed divisions Fusciated, banded crescences growing near its hilum Cymose, resembling a cymne in appearance Fastigiate, when the branches of any plant Caryopsis, a dry one-seeded fruit resem are pressed close to the main stem, as ia bling a seed, but with no distinction be- | Decandrous, having ten stamens the Lombardy poplar tween the seed coat and pericarp Deciduous, falling off Filament, the stalk of the anther Caudate, prolonged into a sort of tail Declinate, curved downwards Filiform, slender and round like a thread Cauline, of or belonging to the stem Decumbent, lying prostrate, but rising again | Fistular, tubular but closed at each end; as Cernuous, drooping Decurrent, produced downwards, as the the leaf of an onion Chalazu, a spot on a seed indicating the base of a leaf down the stem Flabelliform, fan-shaped place where the nucleus is united to the Decussate, crossing at right angles Flagelliform, resembling the thong of a seminal integuments Dehiscence, the act of opening of anther or whip Ciliated, fringed with hairs like an eyelash fruit Flexuose, wavy Cinereous, ash-coloured Delloid, having the form of a triangle or Floccose, covered with little irregular patches Circinate, rolled inwards from the point to Greek A of woolliness the base Denelroidal, resembling a small tree Floret, a little flower Circumscissile, dividing into two parts by a Dentate, with sharp-pointed notches and Floscule, ditto spontaneous trausverse separation intermediate curves instead of re-entering Puliaceous, having the colour and texture of Cirrhous, terminating in a tendril angles a common green leaf Clavate, club-shaped Depauperated, imperfectly developed; look. Foliation, the arrangement of young leaves Claw, the stalk of a petal ing as if ill-formed from want of sufficient within the leaf-bud Clypeate, resembling a round buckler nutriment Follicle, a simple fruit opening by its venCochleate, resembling the bowl of a spoon Depressed, flattened from point to base tral suture only Collum, the point where the stem and root Diadelphous, having the 'stamens in twu Foramen, the passage through the integu. are combined parcels ments of an ovule by which imprego Columella, a central part of the fruit of a Diæcious, having stamens on one plant and nating matter is introduced into the nioss, round which the spores are depo- pistils on another nucleus sited Diandrous, having two stamens Fovilla, the fertilizing principle of pollen Column, the combination of stamens and Dichotomous, repeatedly divided into two Frond, the leaf of a fern or of a palm style in Orchideous and other plants branches Fruit, the full-grown ripened pistil Comose, having hairs at one or both ends, if Dicotyledonous, having two cotyledons Pugacious, lasting but a short time speaking of seeds; being terminated by Didynamous, having two pairs of stamens rungoid, resembling a fungus; that is, irrecoloured empty bracts, if applied to inflo- of unequal length gular in form and fleshy in texture Didymous, growing in pairs, or twins; only | Funiculus, the stalk by which some seeds Conduplicate, doubled together applied to solids and not to flat surfaces are attached to the placenta Confluent, growing together so that the line Digitate, fingered, diverging from a com- Fusiform, spindle-shaped, thickest in the of junction is lost to the sight mon centre, as the fingers from the palm middle, and tapering to each end Conjugate, growing in pairs Dimidiate, half-formed, or halved, or split Connate, growing together so that the line into two halves Galbulus, a small cone whose scales are all of junction remains perceptible Dipterous, having two wings consolidated into a fleshy ball, as in Connective, the fleshy part that combines Discoidal, with the central part of a flat Juniper the two lobes of an anther body differently coloured or marked from Galea, ihe upper lip of a labiate flower Connivent, converging, as the anther of a the margin Geniculate, knee.jcinteil, when a stem bends potato blossom Disk, a fleshy circle interposed between the suddenly in its middle Connidal, approaching a conical form stamens and pistils Gibbous, prominent, projecting Continuous, proceeding from something else | Disse piments, the vertical partitions of a Glabrous, having no hairs without apparent interruption compound fruit Gladiate, the same as ensiform, but broader Contorled, twisted in such a way that all | Distichous, arranged in two rows Page 24
Runner, the prostrate stem of such plants as Spike, an inflorescence in which the flowers Torus, the growing point of a flower on the strawberry are sessile upon their axis which the carpels are placed Spikelet, one of a great many small spikes Trandrous, having three stamens Sagıllate, resembling the head of an antient collected in a mass as in grasses Trifarious, arranged in three rows Spine, a stiff, sharp-pointed, leatless branch Trifid, divided into three lobes Samara, a kind of one-seeded indehiscent Spongiole, or Spongelet, the tender, growing Trifoliolate, having three leaflets pericarp, with a wing at one end tip of the root Tripartite, divided into three deep divisions Sapwood, the newly-formed wood, which Score. or Sporule, the reproductive body of Tripinnate, when each leaflet of a pinnated has not been hardened by the deposit of flowerless plants, analogous to the seed leaf is pinnate; and the leaflets of the secreted matter of flowering plants latter are pinnate also Sarcocarp, the intermediate fleshy layer Squarrose, composed of parts which diverge Triternale, when each leaflet of a ternate between the epicarp and endocarp at right angles, and are irregular in size leaf is ternate, and the leaflets of the Scape, the flowering-stem of a plant and direction latter are ternate also Scale, an abortive leaf Stamen, the fertilizing organ of a flower, Truncate, abruptly cut off Scarious, dry, thin, and shrivelled consisting of filament and auther Tube, the part of a flower where the bases Scrobiculate, irregularly pitted Standard, the upper single petal of a papi- of the sepals, petals, or stamens are united Scutellum, the fructifying space upon the lionaceous flower Tuber, a deformed, fleshy kind of underthallus of a lichen Stellate, arranged in the form of a star ground stem Secundine, the second integument of the Stigma, the upper end of the style, on which Turbinate, shaped like a spinning top ovule the pollen falls Secund, arranged or turned to one side Stipe,the stalk that bears the head of a mush. Umbel, an inflorescence whose branches all Sepals, the leaves of the calyx room ; also the stalk of the leaf of a fern; radiate from one common point Sepia, same as Dissepiment also the stalk of any thing except of a Umbilicate, having a depression in the Septicidal, when the dissepiments of a fruit leaf or a flower midule. are divided into two plates at the period Stipule, the scale at the base of some leaf. Umbonate, having a boss or elevated point of dehiscence stalks in the middle Septisrayal, when the dissepiments of a fruit Stipulute, furnished with stipules; exstipu- Undulated, wavy. are broken through their middle by the late, having no stipules Unguiculate, furnished with a claw, or short separation of the back of the carpels Stomate, a minute hole in a leaf, through stalk from the centre which respiration is supposed to be car- Urceolate, shaped like a pitcher Sericeous, silky ried on; a breathing pore Utricle, a small bladder Serratr, toothed like the edge of a saw Strigose, covered with stiff unequal hairs Sessile, seated close upon any thing, without Strophiolate, having little fungons ex- Vagina, the sheath formed by the convolution a stalk crescences surrounding the hilum of a flat petiole round a stem Setose, covered with setæ or bristles Stupose, having a tuft of hairs in the middle Valve, one of the parts into which any Shield, the fructification of lichens or at the end dehiscent body divides Sigmoid, bent like the letter S Style, the stalk of the stigma Vascular, containing vessels ; that is, spiral Siliele, a short two-valved pod, such as is Subulate, awl-shaped vessels or ducts found in garden cress Syncar pous, having the carpels consolidated | Ventricose, inflated Silique, the same but longer, as in the Vernation, the manner in which the young cabbage Terete, taper leaves are arranged in their leaf-bud Sinuate, turning in and out in an irregular Ternate , united in threes Verrucose, covered with warts Versatile, swinging lightly upon a sort of Sori, the fructification of ferns Tetradynamous, having six stamens in four pivot Spadix, the inflorescence of an arum ; an parcels; two of which consist of two sta- Verticellate, arranged in a whorl axis closely covered with sessile flowers, mens, and two of one each Verillum, same as standard and enclosed in a spathe Tetrandrous, having four stamens Villous, covered with long, soft, shaggy hair Spaticeous, resembling a spadix, or bearing | Thallus, the leafy part of a lichen; the Virgate, having long, slender rodlike shoots that kind of inflorescence union of stem and leaf in those and some Vilellus, a fleshy bag, interposed between Spathaceous, enclosed within a spathe, or other tribes of imperfect plants the embryo and albumen in some seeds bearing that kind of bract Theca, the case which contains the sporules Vittate, striped, as distinguished from fasSpathe, a large coloured bract which en- of flowerless plants ciate or banded closes a spadix Tomentose, covered with short close down Spatulale, shaped like a druggist's spatula ; Toothed, the same as Dentate Whorl, an arrangement of more leaves than that is, long, narrow, and broadest at the Torulose, alternately contracted and dis- two around a common centre upon the point tended same plane.
BOTANY BAY is situated on the E. coast of Australia, George's River, can only be navigated by boats. It was which coast is commonly called New South Wales, but also found that the anchorage which lies contiguous to should properly be called Cook's Land, having been disco- the entrance of the bay was in its whole extent exposed vered by this great navigator in his first voyage. He en- to E. winds, which, especially from the N.E. and S.E. tered Botany Bay and examined it as well as his short quarter set in a prodigious sea. Governor Phillip therefore stay permitted. He found the bay capacious, safe, and con- resolved to examine the neighbouring coast, in the hope of venient. The entrance is a little more than a mile broad, finding a more advantageous place for the new settlement, but the bay afterwards enlarges to about three miles in Not many miles to the north of Botany Bay he entered wilth. He describes the soil about it as either a swamp or Port Jackson, a similar inlet, which was likewise discovered as light sand, and the face of the country as finely diversi and named by Cook, who however did not think it worth his fied by wood and lawn. The trees, he adds, are tall and while to enter it, because it had the appearance of an open straight, and without underwood, standing at such a distance bay. Governor Phillip discovered on its southern shore exfrom each other, that the whole country, at least where the cellent anchorage sheltered from all winds, and here he swamps do not render it incapable of cultivation, might be founded the town of Sidney. cultivated without cutting down one of them ; between the Botany Bay has remained neglected, but the newest trees the ground is covered with grass, of which there is maps indicate that on its northern sliores some places are abundance. The great quantity of plants found there by inhabited and cultivated, probably on account of the neighthe naturalist accompanying him in his first voyage in- | bourhood of Sidney, and of the facility of disposing of agriduced him to call it Botany Bay, and he considered it a cultural produce. It is in 34° S. lat., and 151° E. long., suitable place for a new settlement. according to the determination of Cook. (Cook's First In 1783 it was resolved to found in the southern hemi- Voyage; Governor Phillip's Voyage, and Hunter's Dissphere a penal settlement, and Botany Bay was thought the coveries.) fittest place. Governor Phillip accordingly set sail directly BOTH, JOHN and ANDREW, two eminent painters, for it, but he was soon convinced that this place laboured were born at Utrecht, the former in the year 1610; the under great disadvantages. The bay indeed is extensive, birth of the latter is of uncertain date. Their father was a and gooil anchorage is found in 4, 5, 6 and 7 fathoms water; painter on glass, and it is probable they received their first but both on the N. and S. sides and on the bottom of instructions from him. They were placed at an early age the bay Hats extend to a great distance from the shore, under Abraham Bloemart; and in their youth went to Italy baving only 4 or 5 ft. water on them. The river which to perfect themselves in their art. Here they acquired á falls into the boy at its W. extremity, and is now called | great reputation, John painting landscapes after the man. Page 25
almost all animals, have their peculiar tormentors, but the more than the said duties on glass-ware would a mount to distinctions and habits of these varieties of the Estrus are would hinder the employing great numbers of poor, and not well known. endauger the loss of so beneficial a manufacture to this BOTTA'RI, GIOVANNI, was born at Florence in kingdom. The experience thus recorded did not however 1689, studied Latin and belles lettres under the learned prevent recourse being had to glass as a means for raising Biscioni, and Greek under Salvini, and afterwards philosophy, revenue, and in 1746 various rates of duties were imposed mathematics, and theology, in which last he took his doctor's upon the materials used for making different kinds of glass degree in 1716 in the University of Florence. The Academy in Great Britain, and among the rest 28. 4d. per cwt. upon of La Crusca made him one of its members, and entrusted the materials of which common bottles were made; in 1778 him with the task of preparing a new edition of its great this rate was increased to 3s. 6d. per cwt.; in the following yocabulary, in company with Andrea Alamanni, and Rosso year it was made 3s. 8d. ; in 178i the rate was advanced to Martini. This laborious work lasted several years, and the 3s. 10d.; and in 1787 to 48. O d., at which it continued until new edition was published in 1738, in 6 vols. fol. Bottari 1804, when it was made 48. ld. In 1813, the duties upon was also made superintendent of the grand ducal printing glass, generally, were doubled, and the rate upon bottles beestablishment at Florence, where he published new editions came 88. 2d. per cwt.; at which it remained until 1828, when of several Tuscan writers with notes and comments, such as it was reduced to 78., and at this rate it has since continueu, Varchi's Ercolano, the works of Sacchetti, of Frà Guitton Until the year 1826, Ireland enjoyed an exemption from d'Arezzo, &c. In 1729, he wrote Lezioni tré Sopra il duty upon all kinds of glass made at home, with the exceptremuoto on the occasion of an earthquake which occurred tion of cominon bottles, upon which a duty of ls. 31d. per at Florence in that year. In 1730 he went to Rome, where cwt. was imposed in 1797 ; this rate was continued until he fixed his residence. Clement XII. gave him a canonry, 1828, when it was advanced to 7s. per cwt the rate payable and also the chair of ecclesiastical history in the Univer- in Great Britain, and no alteration has since been made. sity of La Sapienza, and employed him in 1732 together At the time the duty on glass bottles was doubled (1813), with Eustachio Manfredi, on a survey of the Tiber through a tax of 2s, 6d. per cwt. on stone bottles was imposed at the vut Umbria, in order to ascertain whether it could be rendered instance of the makers of glass bottles, who feared that the navigable. The i esult of this survey was published: 'Rela- advanced cost of their own manufacture would give an zione della visita del fiume Tevere da Ponte Nuovo sotto advantage to the makers of stone bottles. This rate was Perugia fino alla fice della Nera.' Bottari made a similar doubled in 1817. This duty on stone bottles never prosurvey of the Teve:one. His next publication was a learned duced much beyond 30001. per annum on the gross receipt, work on the monuinents found in the numerous and vast and it was repealed in 1834. subterraneous vaults near Rome, commonly known by the The quantity of bottle glass made in Great Britain, upon name of catacombs: “Sculture e pitture sacre estratte which excise duties were paid at different periods from 1790, dai cimiterj di Roma, pubblicate già dagli autori della are as follows: Roma Sotterranea, ed ora nuovamente date in luce colla 1790....215,084 cwt. ....160,175 cwt. spiegazione ed indici, 3 vol. fol. Rome, 1737–54. He 1795....205,330 1820....167,200 used the plates of the Roma Sotterranea of Bosio, which 1800....159,334 .248,616 Clement XII. had purchased; but the letter-press may be ..215,094 1830....139,157 said to be entirely Bottari's. He also published Storia 1810...,252,872 1834....215,036 dei SS. Barlaam e Giosafatte ridotta alla sua antica puritá The amount of duty collected, and drawback paid, in di favella coll'ajuto degli antichi testi a penna con prefa- the United Kingdom, during the five years from 1830 to zione,' 4to. 1734, Clement XII. being pleased with his 1834, was as follows:exertions, bestowed on him several preferments, made him a Gross Duty. Draw. on Export. Net Revenue. prelate of the Pontifical Court, and librarian of the Vatican. 1830 £119,277... £56,070.., £63,207 Benedict XIV., who succeeded Clement in 1740, made 1831. . 102,854.....50,197.....52,657 Bottari take up his abode near him in the Pontifical Palace. 1832... 109,298.. 55,533 • Here I am,' Bottari wrote soon after to a friend at Brescia, 1833......113,120.....55,724. ..57,396 • because his Holiness would have it so, and here I shall 1834. ...102,406.....52,456.....49,950 remain, without however expecting or demanding, wishing The whole duty is drawn back on exportation. or deserving any further promotion, which would not be of The manufacture is treated of under GLASS. any use either for my body or my soul.' And in fact he BOTTOM HEAT, a term in horticulture expressive of rose no farther in the career of ecclesiastical dignities. He an artificial temperature communicated by means of ferpublished, in 1741, ‘Del Museo Capitolino, tomo i. conte- menting vegetable matter to the soil in which plants grow. nente le imagini d'uomini illustri, fol.; and afterwards · Mu- It is usually obtained either by leaves, or tan, or fresh sei Capitolini tomus secundus, Augustorum et Augustarum stable-litter thrown into a heap, and enclosed within the hermas continens, cum Observationibus,' fol. 1750. Also walls of a brick pit, the surface of which is covered with Artiquissimi Virgiliani Codicis fragmenta et picturæ ex soil. The object of the cultivator is by such means to preVaticana Bibliotheca ad priscas imaginum formas a Petro vent the temperature of the soil from becoming less than 60° S. Bartoli incisæ,' 1741, fol. Bottari contributed to this Fahr. or more than 90°. The plants to which this kind of work an important preface, with a disquisition on the age temperature is applied are pine-apples, melons, cucumbers, of two MSS. of Virgil in the Vatican, and notes, variantes, &c., and certain tropical plants cultivated in stoves. &c. • Descrizione del palazzo Apostolico Vaticano, opera It is probable that this operation took its rise at a time postuma di Agostino Taja, rivista e accresciuta Roma, 1750.' when it was extremely difficult to procure an equable temTaja had begun this work, which Bottari recast and com- perature of the atmosphere by other means; and when, if pleted. Bottari died at Rome in June 1775, at the age of ihe heat of smoke in tiues was employed, it had the effect 86. He was one of the most distinguished scholars at the of drying the air in which plants were cultivated till it was Roman Court in the 18th century. Among his minor works unfit for their respiration. Fermenting matter, the tempeare, Dissertations on the origin of the invention of Dante's rature of which was prolonged and steady, had in addition poem; two Lectures upon Boccaccio, in which Bottari refutes the great but hardly appreciated convenience, of keeping the charge of infidelity brought against that writer; two the air also gently moistened ; and in this the greatest adLectures on Livy, defending the Roman historian against vantage was found to result. Physiologists tell us that the charge of too great credulity in narrating prodigies; although plants may not derive much direct advantage Letters on the fine arts, Dialogues on the same subject, &c. from atmospheric moisture, inasmuch as the principal part of (Grazzini elogio di Monsignor Bottari ; Mazzuchelli Scrit- the water of vegetation is derived from the soil, yet they tori – Italia.) are exceedingly benefited by the presence of a certain quanBOTTLES, GLASS, in common with other descriptions tity of vapour in the circumambient air, because it prevents of glass wares, were first subjected to a duty by the 6 and 7 a too rapid evaporation from the leaves. Will. and Mary, but the duty then imposed, after undergoing By modern improvements it has been found practicable to various modifications, was repealed four years after, by an maintain the atinosphere of a hothouse in any required act, the preamble of which recited that it was found by ex- state of humidity or temperature, and when steam or hot perience that the duties on glass and glass-w -wares are very water are made use of, this may be carried to a great nicety, vexatious and troublesome in the levying and collecting the and the means of doing this are within the reach of most same, and of small advantage to the Crown, and should the gardeners. One would therefore have thought that the same be continued would lessen the duty on coals much system of bottom heat would be abandoned. So far however Page 26
But perhaps the chief branch of manufacture is that off and Cagni, was born January 10, 1644. He entered the soap, which enjoys a high and deserved reputation all royal guards as a cornet in 1663, during which year he was over France. The exports of the dep. comprehend its present at the siege of Marsal in Lorraine. In the follownatural productions, wine, oil, honey, was, dried fruits, &c., ing campaign he was engaged in an expedition to Gigari the fish' (anchovies, sardinas, tunnies, &c.) caught and in Afri a ; and so much talent did he afterwards ex: it in cured by the fishermen of its coast, and its manufactures. Flanders, that he was allowed to purchase from the Duc de Marseille is the chief port in the dep., and indeed, ex- Lauzun the coloneicy of the royal dragoons. In all the cepting Bordeaux, in all France. [MARSEILLE.) The enterprises of Turenne he bore a distinguished part; and internal trade is facilitated by the navigation of the Rhône he was severely wounded at the battle of Woerden, under and by the canal of Arles, which runs from Arles to the sea the maréchal of Luxemburg, in the winter of 1673. Having nearly parallel to the main stream of the Rhône. The passed into Germany, he was again wounded at the battle canals de Craponne, du Réal, de Boisgelin, and du of Einsheim in 1674, and received the thanks of Turenne Végueyral, are rather for the purpose of irrigation or for having greatly contributed to the success of that day. In drainage. The canal de Craponne runs from the Durance the memorable retreat after the death of Turenne, in 1675, to the Rhône at Arles, with branches to Istres and to St. he commanded the French rear; and from that time till the Chamas, both of which places are near the Etang de Berre : peace of Nimeguen, in 1678, he was employed on active the canal du Réal is in the N.W. part of the department: service. He then commanded in Dauphiné' and on the that of Boisgelin runs from and again into the Durance : 1 frontiers of Spain. His gallantry at the siege of Luxemthat of Végueyral drains the marshes E. of Arles. The burg was rewarded with the government of that city and Durance, we believe, is, from its rapidity, not navigable. province in 1686; and the seasonable detachment of a corps The dep. is subdivided into the three arrondissements of from the army of the Moselle, which he commanded in Marseille (which is the capital of the department), of Aix, 1690, decided the event of the battle of Fleurus. In 1691 and of Arles : and contains 27 cantons and 105 communes. he was again wounded in an attack upon a hornwork at The pop. in 1832 was 359,473: about 154 or 155 to a sq. m. Mons; but during the remainder of that campaign he The pop. at the previous census of 1826 was 326,302, show- triumphantly kept the field against the allies, who were ing an increase of 33,171, or of more than 10 per cent. The more than threefold his number, and continued the blockade pop. of 1832 was thus divided among the three arrondisse- of Liege and of Huy. On his return to court during the ments: arrond. of Marseille, 178,866 ; arrond. of Aix, winter, he was personally invested by the king with the 102,674; arrond. of Arles, 77,933. The dep. for ecclesias- collars of the several orders into which he had hitherto tical purposes is divided into the diocese of Marseille, been admitted only by proxy. When Williarn III. moved including that city and its arrond., and the arch-diocese of to the relief of Namur, Boutlers was selected to oppose him. Aix. The district included in the dep. was formerly divided He then partook of the glories of Steenkerken. In 1693 he among the dioceses of Aix, Arles, and Marseille : but the was elevated to the dignity of maréchal of France, and rediocese of Arles is now (it is probable) incorporated with ceived the new order of St. Louis. . He defended Namur that of Aix, the archbishop of that see taking his title from against the allies, commanded by William III., for sixty Aix, Arles, and Embrun." The Bishop of Marseille is one three days of open trenches in 1695, and repulsed four of his suffragans. The dep. is under the jurisdiction of the general assaults. After its capitulation, he was detained a Cour Royale of Aix ; and is included in the VIIIth Military prisoner of war for a fortnight; and the king, in recompense division, of which Marseille is the capital. It sends five for his great services, erected the county of Cagni and some members to the Chamber of Deputies. "There is an Acadé- adjoining domains in Beauvaisis into the dukedom of Boumie Universitaire at Aix, which includes a faculty of Hers. In 1696 he superintended some preparations for a theology and one of law. projected invasion of England in support of James II., The chief towns (with their pop. in 1832.) are :--Mar- which was not put in execution. In the war of the Spanish seille (121,272 inh. in the town, 145,115 in the whole com- succession, he commanded in the Netherlands; and on mune), on the sea; Aix (15,916 inb. in the town, 22,575 in June 31, 1703, in conjunction with the Marquis de Bedmar, the whole commune); Arles (14,894 inh. in the town, he obtained a signal advantage over the Dutch at Eckaren, 20,236 in the whole commune), Tarascon (9225 inh. in the for which he received from the king of Spain the collar of town, 10,967 in the whole commune), on the Rhône op the Golden Fleece. In 1708, after the batile of Oudenarde, posite Beaucaire ; Martigues (5335 inh. in the town, or 7379 he undertook to defend Lille against Prince-Eugene ; and he in the whole commune), on the channel communicating maintained the town from August 12th till October 25th, between the sea and the Etang de Berre ; La Ciotat (4345 when he capitulated, after having repeatedly declined the inh. in the town, or 5427 in the whole commune), on the king's urgent wish that he should cease to expose himself; sea S.E. of Marseille ; Salon (4187 inh. in the town, or but the citadel into which he retired held out till the 11th 5987 in the whole commune), upon that branch of the canal | December following. The king loaded him with new de Craponne which branches off to Istres; Aubagne (3925 honours for the brilliant defence, and made his duchy into inh. in the town, or 6349 in the whole commune), on the a peerage. His presence in the capital in March, 1709, and river Verne on the road from Marseille to Toulon ; Auriol his deserved popularity among the citizens, contributed to (3373 inh. in the town, or 5320 in the whole commune), allay a tumult which had arisen on account of scarcity of also on the river Verne ; and St. Remi (3213 inh. in the bread ; after which, hastening to Flanders, he tendered his town, or 5464 in the whole commune), on the canal du services w the maréchal Villars, an officer junior to him, Réal. and brought off the right wing of his army in good order, The population returns for 1832 give the following com- losing neither cannon nor prisoners at the diastrous battle munes as containing above 2000 and under 5000 inhabitants: of Malplaquet. This was his last public act; he died at Population of the Population of the Fontainebleau, March 22, 1711, in the sixty-eighth year of Town. Commune his age, and was buried with great military splendour in the Allanch 1,741 3,711 Gardanne 2,459 3,234 church of St. Paul at Paris. Barbentanne 1,864 2,800 Istres 2,483 3,023 The above sketch of the exploits of this distinguished Chamas, St. 2,502 2,632 Lambesc 2,923 3,898 captain is necessarily very incomplete; his history, in truth, Château Renard 4,152 Lançon 1,703 2,060 forms the military history of the half century during which Eguilles 1,847 2,280 Orgon 1,691 2,584 he served, and its details must be sought in the general Eyguières 2,614 2,987 Pélissanne 2,334 2,500 annals of Europe. Many detached anecdotes redound Eyragues 1,811 2,227 Roquevaire 3,218 greatly to his honour. Prince Eugene congratulated him Fontvieille. 1,580 2,056 Trets 2,504 3,014 upon the glory which he had acquired in defending Lille, Fuveau 1,513 2,004 as far superior to that accruing to himself by its capture; This department has produced several eminent men. and it was remarked that horse-flesh was the only food Petronius Arbiter, a Latin writer of some note; Adanson, the served during that siege at a table, which, on other Occanaturalist, the Abbé Barthélemi; Brueys, the dramatist ; sions, was pre-eminent for its costliness. So magnificent Massillon, one of the chief ornaments of the French pulpit : were the banquets with which Boutlers regaled his officers Nostradamus ; Vanloo, the painter; Tournefort, the botanist while he held the command of a mimic camp formed by the and traveller, &c. king at Compiègne, for the instruction and amusement BOUFLERS, LOUIS-FRANÇOIS DUC DE, de of his grandson the duke of Burgundy, that Louis XIV scunded from one of the most antient and noble families in observed that the young prince must decline all compePicardy, the second son of François II., count of Boutlerstition, and remain content to be a guest. The detention o |
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