Atminimum, howmany variables are there in an association claim?
.An association that involves exactly two
What characteristic of a study’s variablesmakes a study correlational?
They are measured, not manipulated.
Sketch three scatterplots: one that would show a positive correlation, one that would show a negative
Sketch three bar graphs: one that would show a positive correlation, one that would show a negative
When do researcherstypically use a bar graph, as opposed to a scatterplot,to display correlational
. can guess, maybe ask. most likely if one of the variables is categorical . most likely not to use it if both variables quantitative
In one ortwo briefsentences, explain how you would interrogate the construct validity of a bivariate
.Does the measure have good reliability?-Test/Retest, Internal Reliability, Interrater Reliability.Measuring what it intends? What is the evidence for its face validity, its concurrent validity, its discriminant and convergent validity?-Face/Content Validity-Predictive/Concurrent Validity(e.g. Do mothers' answers to this question correlate with their actual employment history? for maternal employment)-Convergent Validity -Discriminant Validity
What are five questions you can ask aboutthe statistical validity of a bivariate correlation?Do all ofthestatistical validity questions apply the same way when bivariate correlations are represented as bar graphs?
.What is the effect size?.Is it statistically significant?.Subgroups within the sample? Is the relationship spurious? Is there a third variable?.Are there outliers? .Is the relationship curvilinear? If slope of pattern is not just a straight line, r does not describe pattern well.
Which ofthe three rules of causation is almost alwaysmet by a bivariate correlation? Which two rules
.Covariance
Give examples ofsome questions you can ask to evaluate the external validity of a correlationalstudy.
.Can the association generalize to other people, places, and times? Must consider who the participants were and how they were selected. The size of the sample does not matter as much as the way the sample was selected from its population
Why can’t a simple bivariate correlationalstudymeet allthree rulesfor establishing causation?
.No time difference between measures!
Explain how longitudinal designs are conducted. Why is a longitudinal design called amultivariate
.Because each measure of one variable at different times is a different variable right.Like, TvViolence2001, TvViolence2011AND, TIME is a THIRD variable So no matter what you do, it will always be multivariate
Identify the three types of correlations in a longitudinal correlational design: cross‐ sectional
.Cross-Sectional: TvViolence2001 & Aggression2001.Autocorrelations: TvViolence2001 & TvViolence2011 .Cross-lag: TvViolence2001 & Aggression2011
Interpret different possible outcomesin cross‐lag correlations, andmake a causal inference fromeach
Explain howmultiple‐regression designs are conducted.Describe in your own words whatitmeansto
.LOOK IN TEXT.Control for: Holding p aotential third variable steady while investigating the association between two other variables. Researchers are asking whether, after they take the relationship between the third variable and the outcome (effect) into account, there is still a portion of variability in the outcome (effect) that is attributable to the predictor (cause)
Define dependent variables and predictor variablesin the context ofmultiple‐regression data.How
.Criterion: Researchers most interested in understanding or predicting (also called DV in this case).Predictor: Used to explain variance in the dependent/criterion variable (also called IV in this case..only ONE criterion/dependent variable .unlimited predictor/independent variables i assume
Identify and interpret data fromamultiple‐regression table and explain, in a sentence, what each
When you have only one predictor variable in your model, then beta is equivalent to the correlation coefficient between the predictor and the criterion variable. This SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven 209 equivalence makes sense, as this situation is a correlation between two variables. When you have more than one predictor variable, you cannot compare the contribution of each predictor variable by simply comparing the correlation coefficients. The beta regression coefficient is computed to allow you to make such comparisons and to assess the strength of the relationship between each predictor variable to the criterion variable.
Give atleastthree phrasesthatindicate that a study used amultiple regression analysis.
.rl between x & y is negative, even when z IS CONTROLLED FOR.rl between x & y is negative, INDEPENDENT OF the proportion of z.rl between x & y is negative, even when z IS HELD CONSTANT .rl between x & y is negative, and is NOT ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE THIRD VARIABLE OF z, because it holds even when the proportion of z is held constant
What are two reasonsthatmultiple regression designs cannot completely establish causation? Explain
1. Even though multivariate designs analyzed with regression statistics can control for third variables they cannot establish temporal variables, they cannot establish temporal precedence.2. Researchers cannot control for variables that they do not measure.A well-run exp yy erimental study is ultimately more convincing than a correlational study. The power of random assignment would make the groups likely to be equal on any possible third variable. A rand i d i t i till th ld domized experiment is still the gold standard for determining causation. Multiple regression allows researchers to control forpotential third variables, but only those that they choose to measure
Explain the value of pattern and parsimony in research.
.An approach which allows researchers to investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction. -pattern of results best explained by parsimonious causal explanation-parsimony: simplest explanation of a pattern of data-several diverse predictions are tied back to one central principle = parsimony -does not work for a single study
Consider why journalistsmight preferto reportsingle studies,ratherthan parsimonious patterns of
.Trying to find news, and flashy headlines.They usually only report the latest finding. They selectively present only a part of the scientific process.
Identify amediation hypothesis and sketch a diagramofthe hypothesized relationship.Describe the
TESTING FOR A MEDIATING VARIABLEKenny (2008):1.Test for relationship c. 2.Test forrelationship a.3.Test for relationship b. 4.Finally, run a regression test, using both the predictor and mediator variables to predict the criterion, to see whether relationship c goes awayORtest for relationship c, then a, then b-run regression test-relationship btw IV and DV should drop significantly or become zero when mediator is controlled forMULTIVARIATE CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH (look up and understand more if time)
Articulate the difference betweenmediators,third variables, andmoderating variables.
.med: "why are these two variables linked?"mod: "are these two variables linked the same way for everyone, or in every situation?"THIRD VARIABLE internal validity rule, when you can come up with an alternative explanation for the association between two variables, that alternative explanation is the third variable
Give an example of a question you would ask to interrogate each ofthe four validitiesfor amultivariate
.Longitudinal designs help establish temporal precedence, and multivariate provide evidence for internal validity Should interrogate the construct validity (i.e., how well each variable was measured) external measured), external validity (i.e., how well the results generalize), and the statistical conclusion validity (i e the and the statistical conclusion validity (i.e., the effect size and statistical significance).
What are theminimumrequirementsfor a study to be an experiment?
.A study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured.
In your own words, define the termsindependent variable, dependent variable, and control variable.
.IV = Manipulated in an experiment.DV = Measured .Control = Potential variable experimenter holds constant on purpose
How do experimentssatisfy the three causalrules?
.Temporal Precedence: control which variable comes first
How are design confounds and control variablesrelated?
Design confounds threaten internal validity and vary systematically with the independent variable; control variables establish internal validity and do not vary at all. If you can identify a potential design confound and eliminate it by keep that factor constant instead (turning it into a control variable) then you would have more confidence that your independent variable actually caused the difference in your dependent variable.
Describematching, explain itsrole in establishing internal validity, and explain situationsin which
Matched-subjects design, participants matched into blocks on the basis of a variable the researcher believes relevant to the experiment. Helps eliminate selection effects, or one condition varying systematically in a way tha is different from the other condition
Describe how the proceduresfor between‐subjects and within‐subjects experiments are different.
The principal advantage of a within-groups design is that it ensures that the participants in the two treatment groups will be equivalent. As a result, the only difference between the two groups should be attributable to the independent variable, not to individual or personal variables. also INCREASED POWER (ability to detect stat sig effect)
Describe how posttest‐only and pretest/posttest designs are both between‐subjects designs. Explain
.With random assignment (posttest only), any preexistingdifferences between participants should be distributed evenly across both groups, and their effect canceled out. In some cases, participants might become suspicious if they are asked to complete the same thing twice. The pretesting step is useful if researchers want to be extra sure that groups are equivalent at the outset
What are the two simple forms of within‐subjects designs?
.concurrent-measures design: An experiment usi i hi ing awithin-groups d i i hi h design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable. (taste coke taste pepsi, choose favorite)Repeated-measures designs: An experiment with a within-groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable.
Describe counterbalancing, and explain itsrole in the internal validity of a within‐subjects design.
.Counterbalancing: Presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different orders to control for order effects.
Interrogate the construct validity ofthemeasured variable in an experiment.
How domanipulation checks provide evidence forthe construct validity of an experiment? Why does
Besides generalization to other participants, what other aspect of generalization is external validity
Explain why experimenters usually prioritize internal validity over external validity when itis difficultto
.b/c without internal validity, your results are meaningless regardless of wethere or not your experiment is externally valid
Cohen's D equivalents to r
d = strength = r.20 = weak/small = .10.50 = moderate/medium = .30.80 = strong/large = .50
Summarize the three threatsto internal validity thatthissection has covered.
design confounds, selection effects, order effects
Review three threatsto internal validity: design confounds,selection effects, and order effects. What
Whatis a one‐ group, pretest/posttest design, and which threatsto internal validity are especially
.One-group, pretest/posttest design: A study in which a researcher recruits one group of pp p p articipants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest. Threats to internal validity that especially apply to this design: Maturation, history, regression, attrition, testing, and instrumentation.
Indicate which ofthe threatsto internal validity would be relevant even to a two‐group, posttest‐only
Observer bias, demand characteristics, placebo effect
Explain how comparison groups, double‐blind studies, and other design choices can help researchers
Double-blind study: A study in which neither the participants nor the researchers who evaluate them know who is in the treatment group and who is in the comparison group. When a double-blind study is not possible a blind study is not possible, a variation might be an acceptable alternative. K i g b bli d t diti i Keeping observers blind to condition is evenmore important when they are rating behaviors th t diffi lt t d that are more difficult to code.
Articulate the reasonsthat a studymightresultin null effects: not enough variance between groups,too
The independent variable really does not affect the dependent variable. The study was not designed well enough. Some obscuring factor in the study prevented the researchers from detecting the covariance.Not enuf b/t groups variance: Weak manipulations, insensitive measures, and reverse confounds might prevent an experiment from detecting a true difference that exists between 2 or more experimental groups. Important to ask about construct validity: Was the independent variable manipulation strong enough to cause a difference between groups? Was the dependent variable measure sensitive enough to detect that difference?
Describe atleasttwo waysthat a studymightshow inadequate variance between groups, and indicatehow researchers can identify such problems.How can a studymaximize variability between independent variable groups? (There are four ways.)
.Floor/Ceiling effects.Noisy dataWeak manipulations, insensitive measures, and reverse confounds might prevent an experiment from detecting a true difference that exists between 2 or more experimental groups. Important to ask about construct validity: Was the independent variable manipulation strong enough to cause a difference between groups? Was the dependent variable measure sensitive enough to detect that difference?
Explain why large within‐group variance can obscure a between‐group difference.
.TOO MUCH NOISE! measurement error?
Describe three causes of within‐ group variance— measurement error, individual differences, and
.meas error: use reliable measurements, measure more instances.indiv diff: change design, use either within-groups or matched-groups designadd more participants .sit noise: control irrelevant events, sounds, distractions
In your own words, describe why Wansink’sstudy on price and package size was a factorial design.
Articulate how a crossed factorial design works.
Explain two reasonsto conduct a factorialstudy.
Review studies with one independent variable, which show a simple “difference.”Describe an
Describe interactionsin terms of “it depends.”
How can you detectmain effects and an interaction froma table ofmeans? Froma line graph? Froma
Describe how the same 2 × 2 designmight be conducted as a between‐subjectsfactorial, a within‐
Indicate how the different designs change the number of participantsrequired: Which design requires
Given a factorial notation (e.g., 2 × 2), identify the number ofindependent variables,the number oflevels of each variable,the number of cellsin the design, and the number ofmain effects and interactionsthat will be relevant
Why is amain effect better called an “overall effect”?
Explain the basic logic ofthree‐way factorial designs.
How can you determine,froma graph, whether a study shows a three‐way interaction
Explain how quasi‐ experiments can be either between‐subjects designs or within‐subjects designs.
Define the following quasi‐experimental designs: nonequivalent control group design, interrupted time‐
How is a nonequivalent control groups design differentfroma true between‐subjects experiment?
How are interrupted time‐series designs and nonequivalent control groupsinterrupted time‐series
Explain whether quasi‐experimentalstudies avoid the following threatsto internal validity:selection,maturation, history,regression, attrition,testing, instrumentation, observer bias, experimental demand, and placebo effects.
Describe why both the design and the results of a study are importantfor assessing a quasi‐experiment’s
What are three reasonsthat a researchermight conduct a quasi‐experiment,ratherthan a trueexperiment,to study a research question? Explain the trade‐offs(i.e.,sacrifices or disadvantages) of using a quasi‐experimental design.
Interrogate quasi‐experimental designs by asking about construct validity, external validity, and
Explain three differences between small‐Nand large‐Nexperiments.
Describe three small‐Ndesigns(stable‐baseline designs,multiple‐baseline designs, and reversal designs)
Give examples of questions you would ask about a small‐Ndesign to interrogate allfour big validities
Explain the trade‐offs of using a small‐Ndesign.
How do inferentialstatistics help researchers estimate whethertheirstudies are replicable?
Describe how the three types ofreplication studies are similar and different.
Compare the value of a single study to that of a body ofresearch, or a literature.
In your own words, describe the steps a researcherfollowsin ameta‐analysis. What can ameta‐analysis
Explain what ameta‐ analysis hasin common with direct and conceptualreplication.
Give examples of how external validity applies both to other participants and to othersettings
In your own words, describe the difference between generalizationmode and theory‐testingmode.
Which ofthe three types of claims(frequency, association, or causal)is almost always conducted in
Explain why researchers who are operating in theory‐ testingmodemight not attemptto use a randomsample in theirresearch. What validity are they prioritizing? What aspects oftheirresearch are they emphasizing (for now)?
Summarize the goal of cultural psychology. What doesthisfield suggest about working in theory‐ testing
Reevaluate two common assumptionsfromthe perspectives of generalizationmode and theory‐testingmode:thatimportantstudies use diverse,randomsamples and thatimportantstudiestake place in real‐ world settings.
Sketch three bar graphs: one that would show a positive correlation, one that would show a negative
When do researcherstypically use a bar graph, as opposed to a scatterplot,to display correlational
In one ortwo briefsentences, explain how you would interrogate the construct validity of a bivariate
What are five questions you can ask aboutthe statistical validity of a bivariate correlation?Do all ofthestatistical validity questions apply the same way when bivariate correlations are represented as bar graphs?
Which ofthe three rules of causation is almost alwaysmet by a bivariate correlation? Which two rules
Give examples ofsome questions you can ask to evaluate the external validity of a correlationalstudy.
Why can’t a simple bivariate correlationalstudymeet allthree rulesfor establishing causation?
Explain how longitudinal designs are conducted. Why is a longitudinal design called amultivariate
Identify the three types of correlationsin a longitudinal correlational design: cross‐ sectional
Interpret different possible outcomesin cross‐lag correlations, andmake a causal inference fromeach
Explain howmultiple‐regression designs are conducted.Describe in your own words whatitmeansto
Define dependent variables and predictor variablesin the context ofmultiple‐regression data.How
Identify and interpret data fromamultiple‐regression table and explain, in a sentence, what each
Give atleastthree phrasesthatindicate that a study used amultiple regression analysis.
What are two reasonsthatmultiple regression designs cannot completely establish causation? Explain
Explain the value of pattern and parsimony in research.
Consider why journalistsmight preferto reportsingle studies,ratherthan parsimonious patterns of
Identify amediation hypothesis and sketch a diagramofthe hypothesized relationship.Describe the
Articulate the difference betweenmediators,third variables, andmoderating variables.
Give an example of a question you would ask to interrogate each ofthe four validitiesfor amultivariate
Distinguishmeasured frommanipulated variablesin a study.
What are theminimumrequirementsfor a study to be an experiment?
In your own words, define the termsindependent variable, dependent variable, and control variable.
How do experimentssatisfy the three causalrules?
How are design confounds and control variablesrelated?
Describe randomassignment and explain itsrole in establishing internal validity.
Describematching, explain itsrole in establishing internal validity, and explain situationsin which
Describe how the proceduresfor between‐subjects and within‐subjects experiments are different.
Describe how posttest‐only and pretest/posttest designs are both between‐subjects designs. Explain
What are the two simple forms of within‐subjects designs?
Describe counterbalancing, and explain itsrole in the internal validity of a within‐subjects design.In your own words,summarize all ofthe advantages and disadvantages of within‐subjects designs(hint:
Interrogate the construct validity ofthemeasured variable in an experiment.
How domanipulation checks provide evidence forthe construct validity of an experiment? Why does
Besides generalization to other participants, what other aspect of generalization is external validity
Explain why experimenters usually prioritize internal validity over external validity when itis difficultto
What doesitmean when an effectsize islarge (as opposed to small)in an experiment?
Summarize the three threatsto internal validity thatthissection has covered.
Review three threatsto internal validity: design confounds,selection effects, and order effects. What
Describe the following nine threatsto internal validity: history,maturation,regression, attrition,testing,instrumentation, observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects.What particular problems do these threats pose?
Whatis a one‐ group, pretest/posttest design, and which threatsto internal validity are especially
Indicate which ofthe threatsto internal validity would be relevant even to a two‐group, posttest‐only
Explain how comparison groups, double‐blind studies, and other design choices can help researchers
Articulate the reasonsthat a studymightresultin null effects: not enough variance between groups,too
Describe atleasttwo waysthat a studymightshow inadequate variance between groups, and indicatehow researchers can identify such problems.How can a studymaximize variability between independent variable groups? (There are four ways.)
Explain why large within‐group variance can obscure a between‐group difference.
Describe three causes of within‐ group variance— measurement error, individual differences, and
In your own words, describe why Wansink’sstudy on price and package size was a factorial design.
Articulate how a crossed factorial design works.
Explain two reasonsto conduct a factorialstudy.
Review studies with one independent variable, which show a simple “difference.”Describe an
Describe interactionsin terms of “it depends.”
How can you detectmain effects and an interaction froma table ofmeans? Froma line graph? Froma
Describe how the same 2 × 2 designmight be conducted as a between‐subjectsfactorial, a within‐
Indicate how the different designs change the number of participantsrequired: Which design requires
Given a factorial notation (e.g., 2 × 2), identify the number ofindependent variables,the number oflevels of each variable,the number of cellsin the design, and the number ofmain effects and interactionsthat will be relevant
Why is amain effect better called an “overall effect”?
Explain the basic logic ofthree‐way factorial designs.
How can you determine,froma graph, whether a study shows a three‐way interaction
Explain how quasi‐ experiments can be either between‐subjects designs or within‐subjects designs.
Define the following quasi‐experimental designs: nonequivalent control group design, interrupted time‐
How is a nonequivalent control groups design differentfroma true between‐subjects experiment?
How are interrupted time‐series designs and nonequivalent control groupsinterrupted time‐series
Explain whether quasi‐experimentalstudies avoid the following threatsto internal validity:selection,maturation, history,regression, attrition,testing, instrumentation, observer bias, experimental demand, and placebo effects.
Describe why both the design and the results of a study are importantfor assessing a quasi‐experiment’s
What are three reasonsthat a researchermight conduct a quasi‐experiment,ratherthan a trueexperiment,to study a research question? Explain the trade‐offs(i.e.,sacrifices or disadvantages) of using a quasi‐experimental design.
Interrogate quasi‐experimental designs by asking about construct validity, external validity, and
Explain three differences between small‐Nand large‐Nexperiments.
Describe three small‐Ndesigns(stable‐baseline designs,multiple‐baseline designs, and reversal designs)
Give examples of questions you would ask about a small‐Ndesign to interrogate allfour big validities
Explain the trade‐offs of using a small‐Ndesign.
How do inferentialstatistics help researchers estimate whethertheirstudies are replicable?
Describe how the three types ofreplication studies are similar and different.
Compare the value of a single study to that of a body ofresearch, or a literature.
In your own words, describe the steps a researcherfollowsin ameta‐analysis. What can ameta‐analysis
Explain what ameta‐ analysis hasin common with direct and conceptualreplication.
Give examples of how external validity applies both to other participants and to othersettings
In your own words, describe the difference between generalizationmode and theory‐testingmode.
Which ofthe three types of claims(frequency, association, or causal)is almost always conducted in
Explain why researchers who are operating in theory‐ testingmodemight not attemptto use a randomsample in theirresearch. What validity are they prioritizing? What aspects oftheirresearch are they emphasizing (for now)?
Summarize the goal of cultural psychology. What doesthisfield suggest about working in theory‐ testing
Reevaluate two common assumptionsfromthe perspectives of generalizationmode and theory‐testingmode:thatimportantstudies use diverse,randomsamples and thatimportantstudiestake place in real‐ world settings.
+/- .10 = small or weak+/- .30 = Medium, or moderate +/- .50 = Large, or strong
Point-biserial correlation
A statistical test used for evaluating the association between one categorical variable and one quantitative variable.
A statistical test designed to evaluate the association between two categorical variables
describe random assignment and its role in establishing internal validity
With random assig , yp g nment, any preexistingdifferences between participants should be distributed evenly across both groups, and their effect canceled out.
In your own words,summarize all ofthe advantages and disadvantages of within‐subjects designs(hint:
.disadv:1. The potential for order effects.2. Demand characteristics: Cues that lead participants to guess a study participants to guess a study s hypotheses or 's hypotheses or goals.3. A within-groups design might be impossible..adv:1. Need less participants2. Easier to find a significant effect (greater power).3. ensures participant in each treatment group is equivalentThe principal advantage of a within-groups design is that it ensures that the participants in the two treatment groups will be equivalent POWER, easier to detect stat sig restults |
What are some of the questions that consumers of research should ask to evaluate the statistical validity of an association claim?
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