What was a source of conflict between the Mexican government and American settlers in Texas in the 1820s and 1830s?

What was the impact of American migration to Texas and parts of Mexico on Mexican American relations in the mid-19th century?

Answer

Anglo (meaning non-Hispanic white) migration to Texas began in earnest after Mexico secured its independence from Spain in 1821. In the new republic, Texas was just one part of the state of Coahuila-Texas, a region in Mexico's northern borderlands in which Native communities were powerful. Mexican families lived throughout the northern portion of Coahuila-Texas—the wealthiest of whom were known as Tejanos—and to the Comanche and Lipan Apache they were unwelcome. Viewed from the perspective of the region's Native communities, both Tejano and Anglo settlers were undocumented immigrants.

Many of the first Anglo immigrants to Texas were squatters, individuals who had no Mexican legal claim to their land. By 1824, however, both Mexican and Tejano officials welcomed Anglo settlers, although for very different reasons. The Mexican government wanted assistance securing the country's northern border against raids by the Comanche and other Native groups; the Tejanos wanted help in raising Texas to the level of Mexican statehood, independent of Coahuila, so that they might govern themselves more effectively. Anglo settlers wanted land, and they were initially willing to accept multiple conditions on their immigration in order to get it. In 1825, Mexico passed the Coahuila-Texas colonization law, which offered men at the head of households 177 acres of farming land, grazing rights, and tax breaks in order to settle the region. In return, settlers had to agree to become Mexican citizens, to practice Catholicism, and to uphold all Mexican laws, including those that prohibited slavery.

The vision of colonization held by Mexican officials was soon upended. By the mid 1820s there were more Anglo settlers in Texas than Tejanos, and Anglo families refused to settle where Mexican officials preferred them to go. Instead, they clustered around the state's eastern borders, which made the Mexican government nervous—it appeared that the United States' borders were encroaching into Mexican territory by default.

The Mexican government had good reason to worry. Not only were Anglos more culturally and politically allied with the United States than Mexico—especially on the subject of slavery—but Tejanos initially allied themselves with leading American settlers like Stephen Austin, believing this would position them to gain sovereignty. Mexico's worries were further compounded by the United States offering $1 million for Texas in 1827, and $5 million in 1829. On both occasions, Mexico declined.

...Anglo settlers believed that their culture was superior to that of Tejanos and Mexicans alike, and racial prejudice was rife.

By 1832, more than 6,000 Anglo settlers, who owned more than 1,000 slaves, lived in Texas. This compared with 3,000 Tejanos. Some relationships between Tejano families and Anglos became strained when settlers refused to recognize Tejano land rights and forced families from their farms. Many wealthy Tejanos still felt their interests were best served by alliance with Anglo leaders, however, and it was their cooperation that helped make Texan independence possible in 1835. Tejanos fought alongside Anglos in the ensuing war with Mexico, but in the face of a wave of new immigration after Texas declared itself independent of any larger nation, their political and cultural influence in the region declined. Most new Anglo settlers believed that their culture was superior to that of Tejanos and Mexicans alike, and racial prejudice was rife.

The Mexican government never recognized Texas as an independent state. When the United States annexed Texas in 1845 Mexico once again went to war. After three years, the peace Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo saw the transfer of millions of acres of Mexican territory to the United States government—modern-day Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California, as well as portions of states further north. Anglo settlement, which had once seemed a sound strategic defense against borderland warfare with Indian people, proved the thin edge of a wedge that saw Mexico lose more than half of its territory to the United States.

The Comanche and Lipan Apache continued to defend their territory against immigrants for many more years.

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Texas Revolution, also called War of Texas Independence, war fought from October 1835 to April 1836 between Mexico and Texas colonists that resulted in Texas’s independence from Mexico and the founding of the Republic of Texas (1836–45). Although the Texas Revolution was bookended by the Battles of Gonzales and San Jacinto, armed conflict and political turmoil that pitted Texians (Anglo-American settlers of the Mexican state of Coahuila and Texas) and Tejanos (Texans of mixed Mexican and Indian descent) against the forces of the Mexican government had occurred intermittently since at least 1826.

Having won its independence from Spain in 1821, the fledgling Republic of Mexico sought to gain control of its northern reaches, which under the Spanish had functioned as an extensive and largely empty bulwark against encroachment by competing French and British empires to the north. That northern region, which became the state of Coahuila and Texas under the federal system created by the Mexican constitution of 1824, was thinly populated by Mexicans and dominated by the Apache and Comanche Native American peoples. Because most Mexicans were reluctant to relocate there, the Mexican government encouraged Americans and other foreigners to settle there (Spain had opened the region to Anglo-American settlement in 1820). Mexico also exempted the settlers from certain tariffs and taxes for seven years under the Imperial Colonization Law of January 1823. Moreover, though Mexico had banned slavery in 1829, it allowed American immigrant slaveholders to continue using the labour of enslaved people.

Stephen Austin

Among those who made the most of the opportunity to settle in Texas were Green Dewitt and Moses Austin, Americans bestowed with the title empresario by being granted large tracts of land on which to establish colonies of hundreds of families. Austin died before he could begin that undertaking, but his son, Stephen Austin, realized his father’s ambition and became arguably the most-influential Texian. In fact, in 1826, a militia led by Austin aided the Mexican military in suppressing the Freedonian Rebellion, an early attempt at securing independence from Mexico by settlers in the area around Nacogdoches that had resulted largely from a conflict between old settlers and those who had arrived as part of the grant to empresario Hayden Edwards.

Antonio López de Santa Anna

In April 1830, wary of the rapidly swelling deluge of immigrants from the United States, the Mexican government legislated against further settlement in Coahuila and Texas by Anglo-Americans and reimposed the suspended tariff. Over roughly the next two years, conflict arose in the area near modern-day Houston between Texans and a group composed of officials of the Mexican government and the small military force sent there to enforce the tariff as well as prevent smuggling and Anglo-American immigration. Other issues and events contributed to that conflict, which became known as the Anahuac Disturbance of 1832. It culminated in the Battle of Velasco, on June 26, 1832, won by the Texans, after which the Mexican garrisons were abandoned in Texas except in Goliad and San Antonio (Béxar). While all of that was occurring, back in Mexico, an avowedly federalist general, Antonio López de Santa Anna, was leading a successful rebellion against Pres. Anastasio Bustamante, and many Texans claimed that their efforts to force out the military were anticentralist actions in sympathy with Santa Anna’s attempts to reimpose federalist policy that allowed more autonomy for the states.

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Conventions held by the Texas colonists in 1832 and 1833 resulted in resolutions petitioning the Mexican government for an extension of the tariff exemption, for administrative separation from Coahuila (that is, the establishment of Texas as a state unto itself), and for the repeal of the law preventing Anglo-American immigration. In response to the requests, which were presented by Austin in Mexico City, the Mexican government repealed the immigration law but did not act on the other requests. A letter from Austin in which he advised Texans to ignore the government’s response was intercepted and resulted in Austin’s incarceration in Mexico City for some 18 months. By the time of his return to Texas in 1835, events were in motion that would lead to full-scale rebellion.

Santa Anna soon transformed himself into a centralist caudillo (dictator), ultimately codifying his about-face by replacing the 1824 constitution with a new document, the Seven Laws (1836), that formally put power in the hands of the landed aristocracy (with property qualifications established for holding office and voting) and reconstituted the states as military districts. From the outset, Santa Anna showed no qualms about violently suppressing dissent, as he did in the spring of 1835 in Zacatecas in north-central Mexico, where his “Army of Operations” overwhelmed the local militia and ransacked the area for some 48 hours. In September of that year, he began to reassert central control over Texas—partly out of his belief that the United States had designs on acquiring it—by dispatching Gen. Martín Perfecto de Cos to San Antonio with 300 to 500 troops.

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When Mexican soldiers moved on Gonzales at the end of September to retake a cannon that earlier had been given to that town for its defense against attack by Native Americans, they were initially halted at the Guadalupe River opposite Gonzales by the presence of 18 militiamen. After the Texan forces swelled to outnumber their adversaries (and challenged the Mexicans to “come and take it” [the cannon]), they attacked on October 2 and forced the Mexicans to retreat to San Antonio, thus winning the Texas Revolution’s first skirmish, which came to be known as the Battle of Gonzales. By mid-October a growing revolutionary army, initially commanded by Austin, had begun the siege of San Antonio. After fending off a Mexican attack and then successfully counterattacking in the Battle of Concepción (October 28) and winning the Grass Fight (November 26), a battle west of San Antonio over a mule train carrying grass for the Mexicans’ horses, the Texans tightened their siege. In the first week of December, with Mexican forces divided between the town and the Alamo mission, the Texans began a house-to-house assault that ended with the surrender on December 11 of Cos and the Mexican forces, who, when paroled, withdrew south of the Rio Grande.