What should one surmise if a blood flow found on an object or body does not appear consistent with the direction of gravity?

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Primary connections of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system that control blood flow and blood pressure. Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons (PrG) whose cell bodies are located in the brainstem send axons principally through the vagus nerve to postganglionic neurons (PoG) whose cell bodies are located in ganglia near the heart. Parasympathetic PrG release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) onto nicotinic (N) receptors on the cell body and dendrites of parasympathetic PoG. Parasympathetic PoG release acetylcholine onto muscarinic receptors on the surface of autorhythmic (pacemaker) cells in the heart, particularly those in the sinoatrial node. The binding of acetylcholine to these muscarinic receptors induces a decrease in heart rate.

Sympathetic PrG whose cell bodies are located in the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord send axons to PoG whose cell bodies are located in prevertebral or paravertebral ganglia. Like parasympathetic PrG, sympathetic PrG release Ach onto nicotinic receptors located on the cell body and dendrites of sympathetic PoG. Sympathetic PoG project to the heart, and release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (NE) onto β1 receptors located on the surface of pacemaker cells. The binding of norepinephrine to these receptors induces an increase in heart rate.

Sympathetic PoG additionally release norepinephrine onto β1 receptors located on myocytes in the ventricles of the heart. Binding of neurotransmitter to these receptors induces an increase in contractility of the muscle cells. Furthermore, sympathetic PoG innervate smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels, primarily arterioles. Norepinephrine released from PoG binds primarily to α receptors on the surface of vascular smooth muscle. Binding of norepinephrine to these receptors causes vasoconstriction, and results in decreased blood flow through the affected vessels.

In addition, sympathetic PrG release acetylcholine onto nicotinic receptors on adrenal chromaffin cells. Binding of acetylcholine to these receptors induces the release of epinephrine (E) and some norepinephrine from the chromaffin cells. Epinephrine preferentially binds to β receptors, and elicits an increase in heart rate and ventricular contractility by binding to β1 receptors in the heart. Epinephrine also binds to β2 receptors associated with vascular smooth muscle in particular vascular beds, including arterioles in skeletal muscle. Binding of epinephrine to β2 receptors results in vasodilation. However, when epinephrine levels are high, the hormone binds to α receptors and causes vasoconstriction. Thus, epinephrine can result in an increase or decrease in blood flow to a particular tissue, depending on the amount of the hormone released into the bloodstream.

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Neural regions that generate and modify the gains of vestibulosympathetic reflexes (VSR) and baroreceptor reflexes. Abbreviations: BA, baroreceptor afferent; BP, blood pressure; IML, intermediolateral cell column; IO, inferior olivary nucleus; IX, cerebellar lobule IX, uvula; NTS, nucleus tractus solitaries; PBN, parabrachial nucleus; RF, reticular formation; RVLM: rostral ventrolateral medulla; VA, vestibular afferent; VN, vestibular nucleus complex.

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