What refers to a condition that undermines the well being of some or all members of a society and is usually a matter of public controversy?

1. Kos V. Batistić. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, 2019. UN Doc. 41/34.

2. Ibid.

3. National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. Ending discrimination against people with mental and substance use disorders: The evidence for stigma change. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2016. [Google Scholar]

4. Corrigan P. W., Schomerus G., Shuman V. et al. “Developing a research agenda for understanding the stigma of addictions Part I: Lessons from the mental health stigma literature,” American Journal of Addiction. 2017;26(1):59–66. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Baez N. Mezzaroba O. “Fundamental rights and controversial cultural practices: A new region of the concept of human dignity,” Filosofia Unisinos. 2012;13(1):2–14. and. pp. [Google Scholar]Song A. M. “Human dignity: A fundamental guiding value for a human rights approach to fisheries?,” Marine Policy. 2015;61:164–170. pp. [Google Scholar]

6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948. G.A. Res. 217A (III)

7. Valentini L. “Dignity and human rights: A reconceptualization,” Oxford Journal of Legal Studies. 2017;37(4):862–885. pp. [Google Scholar]

8. Broyles L. M., Binswanger I. A., Jenkins J. A. et al. “Confronting inadvertent stigma and pejorative language in addiction scholarship: A recognition and response,” Substance Abuse. 2014;35(3):217–221. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Kelly J. Westerhoff C. “Does it matter how we refer to individuals with substance-related conditions? A randomized study of two commonly used terms,” International Journal of Drug Policy. 2010;21(3):202–207. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Broyles (see note 8)

11. Ashford R. D., Brown A. M., McDaniel J. Curtis B. “Biased labels: An experimental study of language and stigma among individuals in recovery and health professionals,” Substance Use and Misuse. 2019;54(8):1376–1384. and. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

12. National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (see note 3)

13. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2017 national survey on drug use and health: Detailed tables. 2017. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2017-nsduh-detailed-tables.

14. Thompson V. L., Noel J. G. Campbell J. “Stigmatization, discrimination, and mental health: The impact of multiple identity status,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2004;74(4):529–544. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

15. Chalmers J., Lancaster K. Hughes C. “The stigmatisation of ‘ice’ and under-reporting of meth/amphetamine use in general population surveys: A case study from Australia,” International Journal of Drug Policy. 2016;36:15–24. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

16. Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. Global burden of disease study. 2017. Available at http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool.

17. Whiteford H. A., Degenhardt L., Rehm J. et al. “Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010,” Lancet. 2013;382(9904):1575–1586. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Goffman E. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon and Schuster; 1963. [Google Scholar]

19. Ibid.

20. Corrigan P. W. “How stigma interferes with mental health care,” American Psychologist. 2004;59(7):614–625. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. Bos A. E. R., Pryor J. B., Reeder G. D. Stutterheim S. E. “Stigma: Advances in theory and research,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 2013;35(1):1–9. and. pp. [Google Scholar]

22. Corrigan P. W., Markowitz F. E. Watson A. C. “Structural levels of mental illness stigma and discrimination,” Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2004;30(3):481–491. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Bos (see note 21)

24. Livingston J. D., Milne T., Fang M. L. Amari E. “The effectiveness of interventions for reducing stigma related to substance use disorders: A systematic review,” Addiction. 2012;107(1):39–50. and. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

25. National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (see note 3)

26. McGinty E. E., Goldman H. H., Pescosolido B. Barry C. L. “Portraying mental illness and drug addiction as treatable health conditions: Effects of a randomized experiment on stigma and discrimination,” Social Science and Medicine. 2015;126:73–85. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. Pescosolido B. A., Monahan J., Link B. G. et al. “The public’s view of the competence, dangerousness, and need for legal coercion of persons with mental health problems,” American Journal of Public Health. 1999;89(9):1339–1345. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Luoma J. B., Twohig M. P., Waltz T. et al. “An investigation of stigma in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse,” Addictive Behaviors. 2007;32(7):1331–1346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Sheehan L., Nieweglowski K. Corrigan P. W. Gaebel W., Rossler W. Sartorius N. The stigma of mental illness—End of the story? Switzerland: Springer; 2017. “Structures and types of stigma,” and. and. (eds) [Google Scholar]

30. Corrigan (see note 20)

31. Livingston J. D., Milne T., Fang M. L. Amari E. “The effectiveness of interventions for reducing stigma related to substance use disorders: A systematic review,” Addiction. 2012;107(1):39–50. and. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Thornicroft G. “Premature death among people with mental illness,” British Medical Journal. 2013;346:f2969. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Hemmens C., Miller M., Burton V. Milner S. “The consequences of official labels: An examination of the rights lost by the mentally ill and mentally incompetent ten years later,” Community Mental Health Journal. 2002;38(2):129–140. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Corrigan P. W., Watson A. C., Heyrman M. L. et al. “Structural stigma in state legislation,” Psychiatric Services. 2005;56(5):557–563. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug facts: Criminal justice. 2019. Available at https://d14rmgtrwzf5a.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/drugfacts-criminal-justice.pdf.

36. Boyd J. E., Otilingam P. G. Deforge B. R. “Brief version of the Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness (ISMI) scale: Psychometric properties and relationship to depression, self-esteem, recovery orientation, empowerment, and perceived devaluation and discrimination,” Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 2014;37(1):17–23. and. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Yang L. H., Chen F., Sia K. et al. “What matters most: A cultural mechanism moderating structural vulnerability and moral experience of mental illness stigma,” Social Science and Medicine. 2014;103:84–93. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. Simbayi L. C., Kalichman S., Strebel A. et al. “Internalized stigma, discrimination, and depression among men and women living with HIV/AIDS in Cape Town, South Africa,” Social Science and Medicine. 2007;64(9):1823–1831. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Sheehan (see note 29)

40. Cummings J. R., Lucas S. M. Druss B. G. “Addressing public stigma and disparities among persons with mental illness: The role of federal policy,” American Journal of Public Health. 2013;103(5):781–785. and. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

41. Bos (see note 21)

42. Cook J. E., Purdie-Vaughns V., Meyer I. H. Busch J. T. A. “Intervening within and across levels: A multilevel approach to stigma and public health,” Social Science and Medicine. 2014;103:101–109. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

43. Ibid.

44. Sheehan (see note 29)

45. Pescosolido B. A., Martin J. K., Long J. S. et al. “‘A disease like any other’? A decade of change in public reactions to schizophrenia, depression, and alcohol dependence,” American Journal of Psychiatry. 2010;167(11):1321–1330. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

46. Thornicroft. (see note 32)

47. National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (see note 3)

48. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (see note 13)

49. Courtwright “Justice, stigma, and the new epidemiology of health disparities,” Bioethics. 2009;23(2):90–96. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Keyes K. M., Hatzenbuehler M. L., McLaughlin K. A. et al. “Stigma and treatment for alcohol disorders in the United States,” American Journal of Epidemiology. 2010;172(12):1364–1372. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Sanders J. J., Roose R. J., Lubrano M. C. Lucan S. C. “Meaning and methadone: Patient perceptions of methadone dose and a model to promote adherence to maintenance treatment,” Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2013;7(5):307–313. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Truong C., Krawczyk N., Dejman M. et al. “Challenges on the road to recovery: Exploring attitudes and experiences of clients in a community-based buprenorphine program in Baltimore City,” Addictive Behaviors. 2019;93:14–19. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. Krawczyk N., Negron T., Nieto M. et al. “Overcoming medication stigma in peer recovery: A new paradigm,” Substance Abuse. 2018;39(4):404–409. pp. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. van Boekel L. C., E. P. Brouwers, van Weeghel J. Garretsen H. F. “Stigma among health professionals towards patients with substance use disorders and its consequences for healthcare delivery: Systematic review,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2013;131(1–2):23–35. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

55. National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (see note 3)

56. Sheehan (see note 29)

57. Cook (see note 42)

58. Cummings (see note 40)

59. Courtwright (see note 49)

60. Corrigan P. W. Nieweglowski K. “Stigma and the public health agenda for the opioid crisis in America,” International Journal of Drug Policy. 2018;59:44–49. and. pp. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

61. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) Health, rights, and drugs: Harm reduction, decriminalization and zero discrimination for people who use drugs. Available at https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/JC2954_UNAIDS_drugs_report_2019_en.pdf.

62. Hughes C. E., Stevens A. “What can we learn from the Portuguese decriminalization of illicit drugs?,” British Journal of Criminology. 2010;50(6):999–1022. pp. [Google Scholar]