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Typically, empirical research embodies the following elements: The starting point for your research should be your research question. This should be a formulation of the issue which is at the heart of the area which you are researching, which has the right degree of breadth and depth to make the research feasible within your resources. The following points are useful to remember when coming up with your research question, or RQ: Let's look at some examples: Bisking et al. examine whether or not gender has an influence on disciplinary action in their article Does the sex of the leader and subordinate influence a leader's disciplinary decisions? (Management Decision, Volume 41 Number 10) and come up with the following series of inter-related questions: Motion et al. examined co-branding in Equity in Corporate Co-branding (European Journal of Marketing, Volume 37 Number 7/8) and came up with the following RQs: RQ1: What objectives underpinned the corporate brand? RQ2: How were brand values deployed to establish the corporate co-brand within particular discourse contexts? RQ3: How was the desired rearticulation promoted to shareholders? RQ4: What are the sources of corporate co-brand equity? Note, the above two examples state the RQs very explicitly; sometimes the RQ is implicit: Qun G. Jiao, Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie are library researchers who examined the question: "What is the relationship between library anxiety and social interdependence?" in a number of articles, see Dimensions of library anxiety and social interdependence: implications for library services (Library Review, Volume 51 Number 2). Or sometimes the RQ is stated as a general objective: Ying Fan describes outsourcing in British companies in Strategic outsourcing: evidence from British companies (Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Volume 18 Number 4) and states his research question as an objective: The main objective of the research was to explore the two key areas in the outsourcing process, namely:
or as a proposition: Karin Klenke explores issues of gender in management decisions in Gender influences in decision-making processes in top management teams (Management Decision, Volume 41 Number 10). Given the exploratory nature of this research, no specific hypotheses were formulated. Instead, the following general propositions are postulated: P1. Female and male members of TMTs exercise different types of power in the strategic decision making process. P2. Female and male members of TMTs differ in the extent in which they employ political savvy in the strategic decision making process. P3. Male and female members of TMTs manage conflict in strategic decision making situations differently. P4. Female and male members of TMTs utilise different types of trust in the decision making process. Sometimes, the theoretical underpinning (see next section) of the research leads you to formulate a hypothesis rather than a question: Martin et al. explored the effect of fast-forwarding of ads (called zipping) in Remote control marketing: how ad fast-forwarding and ad repetition affect consumers (Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Volume 20 Number 1) and his research explores the following hypotheses: The influence of zipping Ad repetition effects Zipping and ad repetition The theoretical frameworkEmpirical research is not divorced from theoretical considerations; and a consideration of theory should form one of the starting points of your research. This applies particularly in the case of management research which by its very nature is practical and applied to the real world. The link between research and theory is symbiotic: theory should inform research, and the findings of research should inform theory. There are a number of different theoretical perspectives; if you are unfamiliar with them, we suggest that you look at any good research methods textbook for a full account (see Further information), but this page will contain notes on the following: PositivismThis is the approach of the natural sciences, emphasising total objectivity and independence on the part of the researcher, a highly scientific methodology, with data being collected in a value-free manner and using quantitative techniques with some statistical measures of analysis. Assumes that there are 'independent facts' in the social world as in the natural world. The object is to generalise from what has been observed and hence add to the body of theory. EmpiricismVery similar to positivism in that it has a strong reliance on objectivity and quantitative methods of data collection, but with less of a reliance on theory. There is emphasis on data and facts in their own right; they do not need to be linked to theory. InterpretivismThis view criticises positivism as being inappropriate for the social world of business and management which is dominated by people rather than the laws of nature and hence has an inevitable subjective element as people will have different interpretations of situations and events. The business world can only be understood through people's interpretation. This view is more likely to emphasise qualitative methods such as participant observation, focus groups and semi-structured interviewing.
RealismWhile reality exists independently of human experience, people are not like objects in the natural world but are subject to social influences and processes. Like empiricism and positivism, this emphasises the importance of explanation, but is also concerned with the social world and with its underlying structures. Inductive and deductive approachesAt what point in your research you bring in a theoretical perspective will depend on whether you choose an:
It should be emphasised that none of the above approaches are mutually exclusive and can be used in combination. Sampling techniquesSampling may be done either:
Useful articlesRichard Laughlin in Empirical research in accounting: alternative approaches and a case for "middle-range" thinking provides an interesting general overview of the different perspectives on theory and methodology as applied to accounting. (Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Volume 8 Number 1). D. Tranfield and K. Starkey in The Nature, Social Organization and Promotion of Management Research: Towards Policy look at the relationship between theory and practice in management research, and develop a number of analytical frameworks, including looking at Becher's conceptual schema for disciplines and Gibbons et al.'s taxonomy of knowledge production systems. (British Journal of Management, vol. 9, no. 4 – abstract only). Design of the researchResearch design is about how you go about answering your question: what strategy you adopt, and what methods do you use to achieve your results. In particular you should ask yourself... There's a lot more to this article; just fill in the form below to instantly see the complete content.
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