Use of force using less lethal technologies and weapons to gain control of a situation

1. National Institute for Occupation Safety and Health Preventing Homicide in the Workplace. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homicide.html. Accessed December 19, 2008

2. Durose MR, Schmitt EL, Langan PA. Contacts Between Police and the Public Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2005 [Google Scholar]

3. Alpert GP, Dunham RG. Understanding Police Use of Force: Officers, Suspects, and Reciprocity Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2004 [Google Scholar]

4. Henriquez M. IACP national database project on police use of force. Use of Force by Police: Overview of National and Local Data Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics; 1999:19–24 [Google Scholar]

5. Hirschel DJ, Dean CW, Lumb RC. The relative contribution of domestic violence to assault and injury of police officers. Justice Q 1994;11:99–116 [Google Scholar]

6. Kaminski RJ, Sorensen DW. A multivariate analysis of individual, situational, and environmental factors associated with police assault injuries. Am J Police 1995;14:3–48 [Google Scholar]

7. Uchida CD, Brooks LW, Koper CS. Danger to police during domestic encounters: assaults on Baltimore county police. Crim Justice Policy Rev 1987;2:357–371 [Google Scholar]

8. Federal Bureau of Investigation Law enforcement officers killed and assaulted 2005, 2006. Available at: http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/killed/2005/table68.htm. Accessed January 20, 2007

9. Alpert GP, Dunham RG. Analysis of Police Use of Force Data Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 2000 [Google Scholar]

10. Campbell A, Berk RA, Fyfe JJ. Deployment of violence: the Los Angeles Police Department's use of dogs. Eval Rev 1998;22:535–561 [Google Scholar]

11. Kaminski RJ, Sorensen DW. A multivariate analysis of individual, situational, and environmental factors associated with police assault injuries. Am J Police 1995;14:3–48 [Google Scholar]

12. Meyer G. Nonlethal weapons vs conventional police tactics: assessing injuries and liabilities. The Police Chief 1992;59:10–17 [Google Scholar]

13. Smith MR, Kaminski RJ, Rojek J, et al. The impact of conducted energy devices and other types of force and resistance on police and suspect injuries. Policing 2007;30:423–446 [Google Scholar]

14. Amnesty International USA: Police Use of Pepper Spray—Tantamount to Torture London, England: Amnesty International; 1997. Available at: http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engAMR510671997. Accessed December 26, 2006 [Google Scholar]

15. Amnesty International Excessive and Lethal Force? Amnesty International's Concerns About Deaths and Ill-Treatment Involving Police Use of Tasers London, England: Amnesty International; 2004. Available at: http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGAMR511392004. Accessed December 26, 2006 [Google Scholar]

16. Chan TC, Vilke GM, Clausen J, et al. Pepper Spray's Effects on a Suspect's Ability to Breathe: Research in Brief Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 2001 [Google Scholar]

17. American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California Pepper spray update: more fatalities, more questions, 1995. Available at: http://www.aclu-sc.org/attach/p/Pepper_Spray_New_Questions.pdf. Accessed October 15, 2008

18. Government Accountability Office Taser Weapons: Use of Tasers by Selected Law Enforcement Agencies Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office; 2005 [Google Scholar]

19. Reaves BA, Hickman MJ. Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics, 2000: Data for Individual State and Local Agencies With 100 or More Officers Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2003 [Google Scholar]

20. Granfield J, Onnen J, Petty CS. Pepper Spray and In-Custody Deaths Alexandria, VA: International Association of Chiefs of Police; 1994 [Google Scholar]

21. Petty CS. Deaths in Police Confrontations When Oleoresin Capsicum Is Used: Final Report Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 2004 [Google Scholar]

22. Dawes DM, Ho JD, Johnson MA, et al. 15-second conducted electrical weapon exposure does not cause core body temperature elevation in non-environmentally stressed resting adults. Forensic Sci Int 2008;176:253–257 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Dawes DM, Ho JD, Miner JR. The effect of a cross-chest electronic control device exposure on breathing. Ann Emerg Med 2008;54:S65 [Google Scholar]

24. Dawes DM, Ho JD, Johnson MA, et al. 15-second conducted electrical weapon application does not impair basic respiratory parameters, venous blood gases, or blood chemistries and does not increase core body temperature. Ann Emerg Med 2007a;50:S6 [Google Scholar]

25. Dawes DM, Ho JD, Johnson MA, et al. Breathing parameters, venous blood gases, and serum chemistries with exposure to a new wireless projectile conducted electrical weapon in human volunteers. Ann Emerg Med 2007;50:S133 [Google Scholar]

26. Ho JD, Dawes DM, Bultman LL, et al. Respiratory effect of prolonged electrical weapon application on human volunteers. Acad Emerg Med 2007;14:197–201 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. Ho JD, Miner JR, Lakireddy DR, et al. Cardiovascular and physiologic effects of conducted electrical weapon discharge in resting adults. Acad Emerg Med 2006;13:589–595 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Ho JD, Dawes DM, Reardon RF, et al. Echocardiographic determination of cardiac rhythm during trans-thoracic wireless conducted electrical weapon exposure. Ann Emerg Med 2008;52:S62 [Google Scholar]

29. Levine SD, Sloane C, Chan TC, et al. Cardiac monitoring of subjects exposed to the TASER. Acad Emerg Med 2005;12:S71 [Google Scholar]

30. Levine SD, Sloane C, Chan TC, et al. Cardiac monitoring of human subjects exposed to the Taser. J Emerg Med 2007;13:S47 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. Vilke GM, Sloane C, Bouton KD, et al. Physiological effects of a conducted electrical weapon on human subjects. Ann Emerg Med 2007;26:1–4 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Sloane CM, Chan TC, Levine SD, et al. Serum troponin I measurement of subjects exposed to the Taser X-26. J Emerg Med 2008;35:29–32 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Vilke GM, Sloane C, Bouton KD, et al. Physiological effects of a conducted electrical weapon on human subjects. Ann Emerg Med 2007;26:1–4 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Ho J, Dawes D, Bultman L, et al. Physiologic effects of prolonged conducted electrical weapon discharge on acidotic adults. Acad Emerg Med 2007;14:S63 [Google Scholar]

35. Kroll MW, Calkins H, Luceri RM, et al. Electronic control devices. CMAJ 2008;179:342–343 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Strote J, Hutson HR. Taser safety remains unclear. Ann Emerg Med 2008;52:84–85 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Vilke GM, Chan TC. Less lethal technology: medical issues. Policing 2007;30:341–357 [Google Scholar]

38. Bozeman WP, Winslow JE, Graham D, Martin B, Hauda WE, Heck JJ. Injury Profile of Electrical Conducted Energy Weapons. Ann Emerg Med 2007;50:S65–S67 [Google Scholar]

39. Edwards SM, Granfield J, Onnen J. Evaluation of Pepper Spray Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 1997 [Google Scholar]

40. National Institute of Justice The Effectiveness and Safety of Pepper Spray. Research for Practice Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 2003 [Google Scholar]

41. Nowicki E. Oleoresin capsicum: a non-lethal force alternative. Law Enforc Technol 1993;20:24–27 [Google Scholar]

42. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department Taser project: first year—full deployment study. Available at: http://www.charmeck.org/NR/rdonlyres/e2alrn6jzttfx35m2gwabbqjzhlahc567iwaeusye62e5iz6amtldfmv4mel3ojqzq3qtzd375dhuii4ozio7y3estb/1+year+taser+study.pdf. Accessed December 26, 2006

43. Hougland S, Mesloh C, Henych M. Use of force, civil litigation, and the Taser. FBI Law Enforc Bull 2005;74:24–30 [Google Scholar]

44. Jenkinson E, Neeson C, Bleetman A. The relative risk of police use-of-force options: evaluating the potential for deployment of electronic weaponry. J Clin Forensic Med 2006;13:229–241 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Amnesty International USA Amnesty International's Continuing Concerns About Taser Use London, England: Amnesty International; 2006. Available at: http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/usa/document.do?id=ENGAMR510302006. Accessed October 15, 2008 [Google Scholar]

46. Smith M, Kaminski R, Alpert G, Fridell L, MacDonald J, Kubu B. A Multi-Method Evaluation of Police Use of Force Outcomes Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice; 2008 [Google Scholar]

47. STATA Version 10 [software] College Station, TX: Stata Corp; 2005 [Google Scholar]

48. McCulloch CE, Searle SR. Generalized, Linear, and Mixed Models New York, NY: Wiley; 2001 [Google Scholar]

49. Blumstein A, Cohen J, Roth J, et al., Criminal Careers and “Career Criminals.” Vol. 1 Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1986 [Google Scholar]

50. Adams K. Measuring the prevalence of police abuse of force. Geller WA, Toch H, And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum; 1995:61–98 [Google Scholar]


Page 2

Descriptive Statistics of Overall Sample of Use-of-Force Cases (N = 24 380) and Prevalence of Suspect and Officer Injury, by Demographic and Situational Variables: United States, 1998–2007

Sample, % (No.)Suspect Injury, %Officer Injury, %
Injuries
    Suspect39.4 (9 529)100.00.0
    Officer13.8 (3 209)0.0100.0
White31.0 (7 475)43.0*13.9
Male87.7 (21 286)41.0*14.1
Use of force
    Physical force56.2 (13 668)48.9*21.2*
    OC use23.4 (5 723)22.1*14.0
    CED use22.3 (5 437)25.1*7.6*
Resistance76.3 (14 331)39.9*16.7*
Defensive CED policy65.5 (15 968)35.2*12.5*
Defensive OC policy89.4 (21 818)38.1*13.7