1. Values and Culture A. Value systems are fundamental to understanding how culture expresses itself. B. Values are deeply felt and often serve as principles that guide people in their perceptions and behaviors. 1. Using our values, certain ideas are judged to be right or wrong, good or bad, important or not important, desirable or not desirable. 2. Cultural values are learned, mostly subconsciously, and are hidden deep within the language and traditions of the surrounding society. 2. Value Dimensions A. Individualism vs. Collectivism 1. Individualism is just what it sounds like. It refers to people’s tendency to take care of themselves and their immediate circle of family and friends, perhaps at the expense of the overall society. a. The United States is labeled as the most individualistic country. b. In the United States, individualism is valued and promoted—from its political structure (individual rights and democracy) to entrepreneurial zeal (capitalism). 2. Collectivism describes a society in which tightly-integrated relationships tie extended families and others into in-groups. a. Collectivistic cultures (seen as prevalent in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East) emphasize group identity and conformity, with children expected to be obedient and respectful. 3. Think of these qualities as points along a continuum rather than fixed positions. 4. Individuals and co-cultures may exhibit differences in individualism/collectivism from the dominant culture and certain contexts may highlight one or the other. B. Power Distance 1. How openly a society or culture accepts or does not accept differences between people, as in hierarchies in the workplace, in politics, and so on. 2. Large power distance cultures openly accept that a boss is “higher” and as such deserves more formal respect and authority. a. People tend to accept relationships of servitude. b. An individual’s status, age, and seniority are an integral part of the social equation. 3. Small power distance cultures, in which superiors and subordinates are more likely to see each other as equal in power. a. This leads to an informality of speech, dress, and manners that other cultures might find difficult to negotiate because of their own beliefs, assumptions, and behaviors. 4. Research indicates that the United States tilts toward small power distance but is more in the middle of the scale C. Uncertainty Avoidance 1. Measures a society’s tolerance for ambiguity, in which people embrace or avert an event of something unexpected, unknown, or away from the status quo. 2. Strong uncertainty avoidance generally prefer to steer clear of conflict and competition. a. They tend to appreciate very clear instructions. b. They dislike ambiguity. 3. Weak uncertainty avoidance cultures, such as the U.S. and Britain, show more acceptance of differing thoughts or ideas and are highly tolerant of uncertainty. D. Masculinity vs. Femininity 1. This index is about how society views traits that are considered masculine or feminine. 2. In masculine-oriented cultures, gender roles are usually crisply defined. a. Traditionally perceived “masculine” values are assertiveness, materialism, and less concern for others. 3. In feminine-oriented cultures, gender roles are more fluid a. Feminine cultures are thought to emphasize “feminine” values: concern for all, an emphasis on the quality of life, and an emphasis on relationships. b. Feminine cultures typically offer generous paid maternity and paternity leave, free healthcare, and free access to higher education. 4. The United States is actually more moderate, and its score is ranked in the middle between masculine and feminine classifications. E. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation 1. The long-term orientation values persistence, perseverance, and thriftiness. a. Long-term orientation is often marked by an order to relationships based on age and status. b. A sense of shame, both personal and for the family and community, is also observed across generations. 2. The short-term orientation values tradition only to the extent of fulfilling social obligations or providing gifts or favors. a. Personal stability and consistency are also valued in a short-term oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and familiarity. 3. The United Kingdom and the United States rank as short-term orientation. F. Indulgence vs. Restraint 1. The degree of freedom that societal norms give to citizens in fulfilling their human desires. 2. High indulgence ratings allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. a. These cultures tend to place higher importance on leisure and tend to act and spend money as they please. 3. Low indulgence ratings have strict social norms. 4. Most Anglo-Western nations such as The United States have a high indulgence rating. 3. Value Orientation Theory: Every culture faces the same basic survival needs and must answer the same universal questions. It is out of this need that cultural values arise. A. What is the inherent nature of human beings? 1. The people in some societies are inclined to believe that people are inherently evil and that society must exercise strong measures to keep the evil impulses of people in check. 2. On the other hand, other societies are more likely to see human beings as basically good and possessing an inherent tendency towards goodness. 3. Between these two poles are societies that see human beings as possessing the potential to be either good or evil depending upon the influences that surround them. B. What is the relationship between human beings and the natural world? 1. Nature over humans - some societies believe nature is a powerful force in the face of which human beings are essentially helpless. 2. Humans over nature - societies are more likely to believe that through intelligence and the application of technology, humans can control nature. 3. Harmony with nature - between the two extremes are the societies that believe humans are wise to strive to live in. C. What is the best way to think about time? 1. Some societies are rooted in the past, believing that people should learn from history and strive to preserve the traditions of the past. 2. Other societies place more value on the here and now, believing people should live fully in the present. 3. Then there are societies that place the greatest value on the future, believing people should always delay immediate satisfactions while they plan and work hard to make a better future. D. What is the proper mode of human activity? 1. In some societies, “being” is the most valued orientation. Striving for great things is not necessary or important. 2. In other societies, “becoming” is what is most valued. Life is regarded as a process of continual unfolding. 3. Finally, there are societies that are primarily oriented to “doing.” In such societies, people are likely to think of the inactive life as a wasted life. 4. Critique of Cultural Values Analysis A. While such distinctions can be useful in describing general cultural traditions and patterns of behavior, they are problematic when applied to individuals. B. Contemporary scholars of intercultural communication urge caution in using these categories, as they tend to "present people's individual behavior as entirely defined and constrained by the culture in which they live so that the stereotype becomes the essence of who they are." 1. Critics like Holliday describe the use of Hofstede's categories as essentialism, that is, assuming that people and things have 'natural' characteristics that are inherent and unchanging. 2. The term reductionism is used in similar fashion, referring to the tendency to explain an object by reducing it to a different, usually simpler, level. 3. Holliday emphasizes the importance of allowing other cultures to define themselves, advocating a decentered perspective.
1. Taking a dialectical approach allows us to capture the dynamism of intercultural communication. A. A dialectic is a relationship between two opposing concepts that constantly push and pull one another B. Thinking dialectically helps us see the complexity in culture and identity because it doesn’t allow for dichotomies. 2. We can better understand intercultural communication by examining six dialectics: A. Cultural-Individual 1. This dialectic captures the interplay between patterned behaviors learned from a cultural group and individual behaviors that may be variations on or counter to those of the larger culture. 2. This dialectic is useful because it helps us account for exceptions to cultural norm B. Personal-Contextual 1. This dialectic highlights the connection between our personal patterns of and preferences for communicating and how various contexts influence the personal. 2. In some cases, our communication patterns and preferences will stay the same across many contexts. In other cases, a context shift may lead us to alter our communication and adapt. C. Differences-Similarities 1. This dialectic allows us to examine how we are simultaneously similar to and different from others. 2. When we overfocus on differences, we can end up polarizing groups that actually have things in common. When we overfocus on similarities, we essentialize, or reduce/overlook important variations within a group. D. Static-Dynamic 1. This dialectic suggests that culture and communication change over time yet often appear to be and are experienced as stable. E. History/Past-Present/Future 1. This dialectic reminds us to understand that while current cultural conditions are important and that our actions now will inevitably affect our future, those conditions are not without a history. F. Privileges-Disadvantages 1. This dialectic captures the complex interrelation of unearned, systemic advantages and disadvantages that operate among our various identities. 2. To understand this dialectic, we must view culture and identity through a lens of intersectionality, which asks us to acknowledge that we each have multiple cultures and identities that intersect with each other. Page 2
1. Values and Culture A. Value systems are fundamental to understanding how culture expresses itself. B. Values are deeply felt and often serve as principles that guide people in their perceptions and behaviors. 1. Using our values, certain ideas are judged to be right or wrong, good or bad, important or not important, desirable or not desirable. 2. Cultural values are learned, mostly subconsciously, and are hidden deep within the language and traditions of the surrounding society. 2. Value Dimensions A. Individualism vs. Collectivism 1. Individualism is just what it sounds like. It refers to people’s tendency to take care of themselves and their immediate circle of family and friends, perhaps at the expense of the overall society. a. The United States is labeled as the most individualistic country. b. In the United States, individualism is valued and promoted—from its political structure (individual rights and democracy) to entrepreneurial zeal (capitalism). 2. Collectivism describes a society in which tightly-integrated relationships tie extended families and others into in-groups. a. Collectivistic cultures (seen as prevalent in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East) emphasize group identity and conformity, with children expected to be obedient and respectful. 3. Think of these qualities as points along a continuum rather than fixed positions. 4. Individuals and co-cultures may exhibit differences in individualism/collectivism from the dominant culture and certain contexts may highlight one or the other. B. Power Distance 1. How openly a society or culture accepts or does not accept differences between people, as in hierarchies in the workplace, in politics, and so on. 2. Large power distance cultures openly accept that a boss is “higher” and as such deserves more formal respect and authority. a. People tend to accept relationships of servitude. b. An individual’s status, age, and seniority are an integral part of the social equation. 3. Small power distance cultures, in which superiors and subordinates are more likely to see each other as equal in power. a. This leads to an informality of speech, dress, and manners that other cultures might find difficult to negotiate because of their own beliefs, assumptions, and behaviors. 4. Research indicates that the United States tilts toward small power distance but is more in the middle of the scale C. Uncertainty Avoidance 1. Measures a society’s tolerance for ambiguity, in which people embrace or avert an event of something unexpected, unknown, or away from the status quo. 2. Strong uncertainty avoidance generally prefer to steer clear of conflict and competition. a. They tend to appreciate very clear instructions. b. They dislike ambiguity. 3. Weak uncertainty avoidance cultures, such as the U.S. and Britain, show more acceptance of differing thoughts or ideas and are highly tolerant of uncertainty. D. Masculinity vs. Femininity 1. This index is about how society views traits that are considered masculine or feminine. 2. In masculine-oriented cultures, gender roles are usually crisply defined. a. Traditionally perceived “masculine” values are assertiveness, materialism, and less concern for others. 3. In feminine-oriented cultures, gender roles are more fluid a. Feminine cultures are thought to emphasize “feminine” values: concern for all, an emphasis on the quality of life, and an emphasis on relationships. b. Feminine cultures typically offer generous paid maternity and paternity leave, free healthcare, and free access to higher education. 4. The United States is actually more moderate, and its score is ranked in the middle between masculine and feminine classifications. E. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation 1. The long-term orientation values persistence, perseverance, and thriftiness. a. Long-term orientation is often marked by an order to relationships based on age and status. b. A sense of shame, both personal and for the family and community, is also observed across generations. 2. The short-term orientation values tradition only to the extent of fulfilling social obligations or providing gifts or favors. a. Personal stability and consistency are also valued in a short-term oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and familiarity. 3. The United Kingdom and the United States rank as short-term orientation. F. Indulgence vs. Restraint 1. The degree of freedom that societal norms give to citizens in fulfilling their human desires. 2. High indulgence ratings allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. a. These cultures tend to place higher importance on leisure and tend to act and spend money as they please. 3. Low indulgence ratings have strict social norms. 4. Most Anglo-Western nations such as The United States have a high indulgence rating. 3. Value Orientation Theory: Every culture faces the same basic survival needs and must answer the same universal questions. It is out of this need that cultural values arise. A. What is the inherent nature of human beings? 1. The people in some societies are inclined to believe that people are inherently evil and that society must exercise strong measures to keep the evil impulses of people in check. 2. On the other hand, other societies are more likely to see human beings as basically good and possessing an inherent tendency towards goodness. 3. Between these two poles are societies that see human beings as possessing the potential to be either good or evil depending upon the influences that surround them. B. What is the relationship between human beings and the natural world? 1. Nature over humans - some societies believe nature is a powerful force in the face of which human beings are essentially helpless. 2. Humans over nature - societies are more likely to believe that through intelligence and the application of technology, humans can control nature. 3. Harmony with nature - between the two extremes are the societies that believe humans are wise to strive to live in. C. What is the best way to think about time? 1. Some societies are rooted in the past, believing that people should learn from history and strive to preserve the traditions of the past. 2. Other societies place more value on the here and now, believing people should live fully in the present. 3. Then there are societies that place the greatest value on the future, believing people should always delay immediate satisfactions while they plan and work hard to make a better future. D. What is the proper mode of human activity? 1. In some societies, “being” is the most valued orientation. Striving for great things is not necessary or important. 2. In other societies, “becoming” is what is most valued. Life is regarded as a process of continual unfolding. 3. Finally, there are societies that are primarily oriented to “doing.” In such societies, people are likely to think of the inactive life as a wasted life. 4. Critique of Cultural Values Analysis A. While such distinctions can be useful in describing general cultural traditions and patterns of behavior, they are problematic when applied to individuals. B. Contemporary scholars of intercultural communication urge caution in using these categories, as they tend to "present people's individual behavior as entirely defined and constrained by the culture in which they live so that the stereotype becomes the essence of who they are." 1. Critics like Holliday describe the use of Hofstede's categories as essentialism, that is, assuming that people and things have 'natural' characteristics that are inherent and unchanging. 2. The term reductionism is used in similar fashion, referring to the tendency to explain an object by reducing it to a different, usually simpler, level. 3. Holliday emphasizes the importance of allowing other cultures to define themselves, advocating a decentered perspective.
1. Taking a dialectical approach allows us to capture the dynamism of intercultural communication. A. A dialectic is a relationship between two opposing concepts that constantly push and pull one another B. Thinking dialectically helps us see the complexity in culture and identity because it doesn’t allow for dichotomies. 2. We can better understand intercultural communication by examining six dialectics: A. Cultural-Individual 1. This dialectic captures the interplay between patterned behaviors learned from a cultural group and individual behaviors that may be variations on or counter to those of the larger culture. 2. This dialectic is useful because it helps us account for exceptions to cultural norm B. Personal-Contextual 1. This dialectic highlights the connection between our personal patterns of and preferences for communicating and how various contexts influence the personal. 2. In some cases, our communication patterns and preferences will stay the same across many contexts. In other cases, a context shift may lead us to alter our communication and adapt. C. Differences-Similarities 1. This dialectic allows us to examine how we are simultaneously similar to and different from others. 2. When we overfocus on differences, we can end up polarizing groups that actually have things in common. When we overfocus on similarities, we essentialize, or reduce/overlook important variations within a group. D. Static-Dynamic 1. This dialectic suggests that culture and communication change over time yet often appear to be and are experienced as stable. E. History/Past-Present/Future 1. This dialectic reminds us to understand that while current cultural conditions are important and that our actions now will inevitably affect our future, those conditions are not without a history. F. Privileges-Disadvantages 1. This dialectic captures the complex interrelation of unearned, systemic advantages and disadvantages that operate among our various identities. 2. To understand this dialectic, we must view culture and identity through a lens of intersectionality, which asks us to acknowledge that we each have multiple cultures and identities that intersect with each other. |
The _______ conflict approach is guided by collectivism and large power distance values.
Pos Terkait
Copyright © 2024 ketiadaan Inc.
