________ refer(s) to ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.

Think of a leader you've known who relied on their ability to discipline or reward people to get things done. Then, remind yourself of a leader who was a renowned expert in their field, or who you really admired for their integrity.

How did it feel to work for these leaders, and which one got the best from you? The way a leader behaves toward you and how effectively you work as a result can both depend on the source of their power. And their power need not come from their official status or title.

Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven studied this phenomenon more than half a century ago. Despite its age, their research can still help us to understand why some leaders influence us, how prepared we are to accept their power, and – if you are a leader – how you can develop new power bases to get the best from your people.

Not all forms of power have a positive influence.

Understanding Power

In 1959, French and Raven described five bases of power:

1. Legitimate – This comes from the belief that a person has the formal right to make demands, and to expect others to be compliant and obedient.
2. Reward – This results from one person's ability to compensate another for compliance.
3. Expert – This is based on a person's high levels of skill and knowledge.
4. Referent – This is the result of a person's perceived attractiveness, worthiness and right to others' respect.
5. Coercive – This comes from the belief that a person can punish others for noncompliance.

Six years later, Raven added an extra power base:

1. Informational – This results from a person's ability to control the information that others need to accomplish something.

By understanding these different forms of power, you can learn to use the positive ones to full effect, while avoiding the negative power bases that managers can instinctively rely on.

The Bases of Power

Let's explore French and Raven's bases of power in two groups – positional and personal.

Positional Power Sources

Legitimate Power

A president, prime minister or monarch has legitimate power. So does a CEO, a religious minister, or a fire chief. Electoral mandates, social hierarchies, cultural norms, and organizational structure all provide the basis for legitimate power.

This type of power, however, can be unpredictable and unstable. If you lose the title or position, your legitimate power can instantly disappear, because people were influenced by the position you held rather than by you.

Also, the scope of your power is limited to situations that others believe you have a right to control. If a fire chief tells people to stay away from a burning building, for example, they'll likely listen. But if he tries to make two people act more courteously toward one another, they'll likely ignore the instruction.

Reward Power

People in power are often able to give out rewards. Raises, promotions, desirable assignments, training opportunities, and simple compliments – these are all examples of rewards controlled by people "in power." If others expect that you'll reward them for doing what you want, there's a high probability that they'll do it.

The problem with this power base is that it may not be as strong as it first seems. Supervisors rarely have complete control over salary increases, managers often can't control promotions by themselves, and even CEOs need permission from their boards of directors for some actions. Also, when you use up rewards, or when the rewards don't have enough perceived value, your power weakens.

The exceptions to this are praise and thanks. We love to receive them and, best of all, they're free to give!

Coercive Power

This source of power is also problematic, and can be abused. What's more, it can cause dissatisfaction or resentment among the people it's applied to.

Threats and punishment are common coercive tools. You use coercive power when you imply or threaten that someone will be fired, demoted or denied privileges. While your position may allow you to do this, though, it doesn't mean that you have the will or the justification to do so. You may sometimes need to punish people as a last resort but if you use coercive power too much, people will leave. (You might also risk being accused of bullying them.)

Informational Power

Having control over information that others need or want puts you in a powerful position. Having access to confidential financial reports, being aware of who's due to be laid off, and knowing where your team is going for its annual “away day” are all examples of informational power.

In the modern economy, information is a particularly potent form of power. The power derives not from the information itself but from having access to it, and from being in a position to share, withhold, manipulate, distort, or conceal it. With this type of power, you can use information to help others, or as a weapon or a bargaining tool against them.

Personal Power Sources

Relying on these positional forms of power alone can result in a cold, technocratic, impoverished style of leadership. To be a true leader, you need a more robust source of power than a title, an ability to reward or punish, or access to information.

Expert Power

When you have knowledge and skills that enable you to understand a situation, suggest solutions, use solid judgment, and generally outperform others, people will listen to you, trust you, and respect what you say. As a subject matter expert, your ideas will have value, and others will look to you for leadership in that area.

What's more, you can expand your confidence, decisiveness and reputation for rational thinking into other subjects and issues. This is a good way to build and maintain expert power, and to improve your leadership skills.

You can read more about building expert power, and using it as an effective foundation for leadership, here.

Referent Power

Referent power comes from one person liking and respecting another, and identifying with them in some way. Celebrities have referent power, which is why they can influence everything from what people buy to which politician they elect. In a workplace, a person with referent power often makes everyone feel good, so he tends to have a lot of influence.

Referent power can be a big responsibility, because you don't necessarily have to do anything to earn it. So, it can be abused quite easily. Someone who is likeable, but who lacks integrity and honesty, may rise to power – and use that power to hurt and alienate people as well as to gain personal advantage.

Relying on referent power alone is not a good strategy for a leader who wants longevity and respect. When it is combined with expert power, however, it can help you to be very successful.

Infographic

You can see our infographic of French and Raven's theory here:

In 1959, social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven identified five bases of power:

1. Legitimate.
2. Reward.
3. Expert.
4. Referent.
5. Coercive.

And, six years later, added an extra power base:

Anyone is capable of holding power and influencing others: you don't need to have an important job title or a big office. But if you recognize the different forms of power, you can avoid being influenced by those who use the less positive ones – and you can focus on developing expert and referent power for yourself. This will help you to become an influential and effective leader.

Apply This to Your Life

1. Go through each power base and write down when and how you've used it.
2. Ask yourself if you used the power appropriately. Consider the expected and unexpected consequences, and decide what you'll do differently next time.
3. Think about the people who have power and influence over you. What sources of power do they use? Do they use their power appropriately? Where necessary, develop a strategy to reduce someone else's illegitimate use of power over you.
4. When you feel powerless or overly influenced, think about how you could regain your own power and control. After all, you're never without power. Aim to be more aware of the power you have, and use it to get what you need – humanely.

In everyday situations, people use a variety of power tactics to push or prompt people into a particular action. There are plenty of examples of power tactics that are quite common and employed every day.

Some of these tactics include bullying, collaboration, complaining, criticizing, demanding, disengaging, evading, inspiring, manipulating, negotiating, socializing, arid supplicating.

It is important that we understand and identify the different types of power tactics that are present. The interesting thing is, once we identify and discuss them, you will begin to notice them a lot more in your place of business.

You will begin to see when people are using these tactics and, in some ways, better understand how to deal with them. In this section, we move to the topic of power tactics to learn how employees translate their power bases into specific actions.

Recent research indicates that there are standardized ways by which power holders attempt to get what they want.

When 165 managers, were asked to write essays describing an incident in which they influenced their bosses, co-workers, or employees, a total of 370 power tactics grouped into 14 categories were identified.

These answers were condensed, re-written into a 58- item questionnaire, and given to over 750 employees. These respondents were not only asked how they went about influencing others at work but also for the possible reasons for influencing the target person.

The results, which are summarized here, give us considerable insight into power tactics – how managerial employees influence others arid the conditions under which one tactic is chosen over another.

The findings identified 7 tactical dimensions or strategies;

1. Reason.
2. Friendliness.
3. Coalition.
4. Bargaining.
5. Assertiveness.
6. Higher authority.
7. Sanctions.

7 tactical dimensions or strategies are explained below;

Reason

Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas,

Friendliness

Use of flattery, the creation of goodwill, acting humble and being friendly prior to make a request.

Coalition

Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request/

Bargaining

Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors.

Assertiveness

Use of direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance with the request, repeating reminders, ordering individuals to do what is asked, and pointing out that rules require compliance.

Higher authority

Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up request.

Sanctions

Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments such as preventing or promising a salary increase, threatening to give an unsatisfactory performance evaluation, or withholding a promotion.

The researchers found that employees do not rely on the seven tactics equally.

Read more: Leadership: Definition, Nature, Styles of Leadership

However, as shown in Figure, the most popular strategy was the use of reason, regardless of whether the influence was directed upward or downward.

In addition, researchers have uncovered five contingency variables that affect the selection of a power tactic, the manager’s objectives for wanting to influence, the manager’s expectation of the target person’s willingness to comply, the organization’s culture, and cross-cultural differences.

A manager’s relative power has an impact on the selection of tactics in two ways.

First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who has perceived to be in positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power.

Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less power. Managers vary their power tactics in relation to their objectives.

When managers seek to benefit from a superior, they tend to rely on kind words and the promotion of pleasant relationships; that is they use friendliness. The manager’s expectations of success guide his or her choice of tactics.

When past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain compliance. When success is less predictable, managers are more tempted to use assertiveness and sanctions to achieve- their objectives.

We know that cultures within organizations differ markedly; for example, some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. The organizational culture in which a manager works, therefore, will have a significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate.

Finally, evidence indicates that people in different countries tend to prefer different power tactics.